Piktnams 

Automobile 

Handbook 

TKe  Care  and  Management 
of  the  Modern  Motor  Car 


Putnam's 
Automobile  Handbook 

The  Care  and  Management  of  the 
Modern    Motor-Gar 


By 
H.  Clifford  Brokaw 

Principal 

And 

Charles  A.  Starr 

Of  the  Staff 

of  the  Automobile  School  of  the  West  Side  Young  Men's 
Christian  Association  of  New  York  City 


Illustrated 


G.  P.  Putnam's  Sons 

New  York  and  London 

Gbe   fmicfterbocfcet    press 

1918 


COPYRIGHT,  1918 

BY 
G.  P.  PUTNAM'S  SONS 


TTbc  Knfcfcetbocfecr  press,  *Uw  Borh 


FOREWORD 

MUCH  of  the  material,  here  assembled  for  the 
first  time,  has  been  printed  in  the  automobile 
section  of  New  York  City  newspapers.  It  has 
stood  the  scrutiny  of  the  wisest  men  in  the  auto- 
mobile trade  and  has  been  read  eagerly  by  owners 
within  the  sphere  of  the  newspapers'  limited  circu- 
lation; some  of  it  has  been  reprinted  in  papers 
all  over  the  country,  which  is  evidence  enough 
of  its  practical  value. 

The  publication,  however,  has  been  without 
sequence  and  all  of  it  has  not  appeared  in  any  one 
paper.  Moreover  it  has  been  reassembled  and 
rewritten  and  much  has  been  added  to  round  out 
the  story  of  the  automobile  and  to  adapt  the 
material  to  the  use  of  everyday  men  who  do  not 
understand  or  care  for  the  more  technical  works. 

It  should  not  be  taken  as  the  last  word  concern- 
ing the  auto.  That  will  not  be  written  until  after 
the  automobile  has  been  driven  out  of  business 
by  the  airplane  or  something  else  and  is  as  obsolete 
as  the  oxcart  of  a  century  or  two  ago.  There  is 
nothing  new  in  the  principle  of  the  gas  engine, 
but  new  appliances  and  new  methods  are  con- 
stantly being  invented  and  discovered. 


iv  Foreword 

All  that  is  herein  contained  is  the  result  of  years 
of  experience  at  the  Automobile  School  of  the 
West  Side  Young  Men's  Christian  Association, 
New  York  City.  This  was  one  of  the  pioneer 
schools  and  for  fourteen  years  has  turned  out  more 
than  looo  trained  drivers  each  year  who  know 
their  engine  and  working  parts  thoroughly.  Last 
year  the  number  was  nearly  2500.  Naturally 
in  handling  these  thousands  of  bright  men  the 
instructors  were  stimulated  and  themselves  learned 
as  they  taught.  The  consensus  of  this  ripe  experi- 
ence is  given  here. 

Lest  there  be  misunderstanding,  it  were  better 
said  at  once  that  if  the  reader  has  come  to  this 
book  to  learn  how  to  be  a  garage  mechanic,  how  to 
qualify  as  an  expert  in  automotive  technique,  or 
how  to  learn  common  sense,  he  should  at  once  seek 
another  source  of  information.  This  book  makes 
no  pretensions  of  teaching  the  last  word  in  auto- 
mobile repair.  But  if  the  automobile  owner 
desires  to  have  a  working  knowledge  of  his  car,  to 
know  how  to  find  and  overcome  the  ordinary  ills 
and  troubles  to  which  it  is  subject,  and  how  to 
diagnose  and  prescribe  for  it  when  it  begins  to 
wheeze  or  squeak  or  groan  or  knock,  let  him  read 
on.  The  book  is  for  him. 

In  other  words  this  is  not  a  sine  qua  non,  but  a 


/ 

Foreword  v 

friend  in  need;  it  is  not  a  know-it-all,  but  a  first- 
aid  treatise.  It  is  a  leaf — several  in  fact — from  the 
book  of  experience,  relating  not  to  the  engineering 
problems  of  the  automobile,  but  to  the  things  which 
the  engineer  overlooked  or  could  not  solve,  and 
which  the  ingenuity  of  men  who  lay  no  claim  to 
the  title  of  engineer,  has  enabled  them  to  learn  so 
that  they  may  take  a  bucking  auto  and  make  it 
feed  out  of  their  hands  and  stand  without  hitching. 
One  of  the  first  essentials  of  an  automobile  is 
that  it  shall  go,  and  that  no  amount  of  perversity 
shall  prevent  the  owner  from  "driving  it  back 
home  under  its  own  power."  Anyone  may  be 
towed  in,  if  there  is  a  horse  or  another  automobile 
handy ;  the  wise  owner  will  prepare  himself  to  avoid 
this.  Except  for  serious  breaks  of  parts,  or  forget  - 
fulness  which  permits  oil  or  gas  supply  to  run  out, 
there  is  seldom  reason  why  the  average  owner 
should  not  "get  out  and  get  under"  to  find  out 
what  the  trouble  is  and,  having  found  it,  to  remove 
the  cause  and  start  the  engine.  It  usually  should 
take  only  a  few  minutes.  System  in  locating 
trouble  and  knowledge  of  what  to  do  to  remove 
the  trouble  are  within  the  compass  of  all ;  if  there 
also  reside  within  the  individual  a  few  grains 
of  common  sense,  his  problem  is  simplified,  his 
troubles  are  lightened. 


vi  Foreword 

Let  it  be  said  also  that  this  book  does  not  in 
any  way  pretend  to  supersede  an  automobile 
school  for  the  owner  who  desires  to  make  all  his 
ordinary  repairs,  and  do  more  puttering  about  the 
car  than  the  average  owner  cares  for.  All  owners 
would  save  the  cost  of  instruction  many  times  over 
and  repay  the  lost  time  by  taking  a  course  of  in- 
struction in  a  reputable  school.  Many  Y.  M.  C.  A. 
branches  all  over  the  land  have  well  equipped 
schools,  and  there  are  many  others  in  the  cities; 
there  are  also  many  where  time  spent  would  be 
wasted.  There  are  several  in  one  of  our  large 
cities  where  the  expense  is  very  small,  but  it  is 
dear  at  any  price.  The  "course"  consists  largely 
in  putting  the  student  to  work  in  a  garage  as  an 
apprentice,  where  his  instruction  is  confined  to 
verbal  orders  of  how  to  repair  a  car  which  comes 
in.  In  time,  of  course,  the  student  comes  across  a 
large  variety  of  troubles,  depending  upon  the 
character  of  the  garage  trade.  Meanwhile  the 
garage-auto-school  proprietor  permits  the  student 
to  pay  for  the  privilege  of  doing  the  repair  work  at 
the  institution.  No  wonder  the  course  is  adver- 
tised as  unlimited ! 

It  should  be  understood  that  this  book  does  not 
pretend  to  tell  all  the  troubles  attaching  to  auto- 
mobiles and  how  to  end  them;  but  it  covers  the 


Foreword  vii 

general  run  of  difficulties  experienced  on  the  road 
and  a  close  study  of  its  pages  and  an  application 
of  its  advice  will  make  an  owner  who  has  the  least 
mechanical  genius  independent  of  the  garage  man, 
with  his  delay  and  extravagant  charges;  at  least  it 
will  enable  him  to  get  to  the  home  garage  in  most 
cases,  where  repairs  may  be  effected  with  a  mini- 
mum of  expense  and  annoyance. 

Upon  this  basis  and  with  this  understanding, 
the  automobile  owner  may  safely  pin  his  faith  to 
what  follows  and  plunge  at  once  into  its  depths 
without  fear. 

H.  C.  B. 

C.  A.  S. 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  PAGB 

I. — WHAT  TO  Do  ON  PURCHASING  A 

CAR i 

II. — SOME  THINGS  TO  AVOID  .  .  7 

III. — WHAT  AN  AUTOMOBILE  Is  .  .  12 

IV. — WHAT  MAKES  THE  ENGINE  Go  .  21 

V. — EQUIPMENT  AND  ACCESSORIES      .  26 

VI. — IF  WELL  "SLICKED"  THE  ENGINE 

RUNS 33 

VII. — WHERE   LUBRICATION   is   NEG- 
LECTED    39 

VIII. — SOMETIMES  THE  CAR  SMOKES        .  46 

IX. — THE  CARBURETOR  AND  ITS  FAIL- 
INGS         51 

X. — GETTING   THE   MOST  OUT    OF    A 

GALLON  OF  GAS      ...  58 

XI. — THINGS  WHICH  MAKE  GAS  BILLS 

HIGH 63 

XII. — CARE  OF  THE  TIRES     ...  69 

XIII. — SKIDDING  MAY  BE  MINIMIZED        .  76 


:  Contents 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

XIV. — "  CAN'T-SLIP     HEELS  "     LESSEN 

SKIDDING        ....  84 

XV. — AVOID  NEWLY  OILED  ROADS         .  90 

XVI. — WATCH  YOUR  BRAKES         .         .  93 

XVII. — WHY  THE  AUTO  STEERS  EASILY  .  101 

XVIII.— THE  ELUSIVE  "JUICE"       .         .  108 

XIX. — PUTTING  THE  KICK  IN  THE  SPARK  116 

XX. — WHAT'S  THE  TROUBLE  WITH  MY 

BATTERY?       .         .         .         .123 

XXI. — WHY  GEARS  STRIP     .         .         .  130 

XXII.— THE  GEAR-SHIFTING  BUGABOO      .  137 

XXIII. — THE  MUFFLER  ....  143 

XXIV. — YOUR  BEARINGS          .         .         .  149 

XXV. — DRIVING  THE  CAR      .         .         .156 

XXVI. — WHERE  EXTRA  CAUTION  is  NECES- 
SARY          178 

XXVII. — AN  AUTO  FURNACE  FOR  WINTER  184 

XXVIII. — THE  COOLING  SYSTEM  IN  WINTER  191 

XXIX. — OVERHEATING   THE   ENGINE   IN 

SUMMER          ....  197 

XXX.— SOME       OTHER       HOT-WEATHER 

TIPS 203 

XXXI. — HOT-WEATHER  TIRE  EXPANSION  .  209 
XXXII. — GUARDING  AGAINST  FIRE    .         .214 


Contents  xi 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

XXXIII. — DON'T  RUN  AWAY  FROM  A  FIRE    .  220 

XXXIV. — DEATH  IN  THE  GASOLINE   .         .  224 

XXXV. — SHIFTING  GEARS  ON  HILLS  .         .  229 

XXXVI. — KEEPING  THE  CAR  SLEEK     .         .  236 

XXXVII. — SOME  THINGS  A  TOURIST  SHOULD 

KNOW 244 

XXXVIII.— LITTLE     KNOCKS    ARE     HARDLY 

BOOSTS 251 

XXXIX.— SOME  OTHER  CAUSES  OF  KNOCK- 
ING           255 

XL. — CHASSIS  KNOCKS         .         .         .  262 

XLI. — KEEPING   DOWN   THE  AUTO  UP- 
KEEP         267 

XLII. — HUNTING  TROUBLE     .         .         .  272 

XLIII. — MORE  TROUBLE          .         .         .  280 

XLIV.— DON'T  TAKE  THINGS  FOR  GRANTED  285 

XLV. — BLOWING  YOUR  OWN  HORN          .  294 

XLVI. — WOMEN  AS  DRIVERS  .         .         .  300 

XLVII. — MISCELLANEOUS  RULES        .         .  308 

XLVIII. — THE  GOLDEN  RULE  OF  MOTORING  317 

INDEX 331 


ILLUSTRATIONS 

PACK 

SECTIONAL  VIEW  OF  A  MODERN  AUTOMOBILE 
WITH  FOUR-CYLINDER  ENGINE  Frontispiece 

CHASSIS  PLAN  OF  THE  SAME  AUTOMOBILE      .       14 

SECTIONAL  VIEW  OF  A  FOUR-CYLINDER  ENGINE 
WITH  SPECIAL  REFERENCE  TO  PARTS  CON- 
NECTED WITH  LUBRICATION  ...  34 

REAR  WHEEL  AND  BRAKE  DRUM  REMOVED, 
SHOWING  EXTERNAL  AND  INTERNAL  BRAKE 
BAND^  AND  MECHANISM  ....  98 

THEN  HE  WENT  TO  SCHOOL  TO  LEARN  SOME 
MORE  ABOUT  HIS  CAR  .  .  .  .125 

DIAGRAM  OF  THREE  SPEED  AND  REVERSE  GEAR       132 

BLOCK  OF  STEEL,  AND  THE  GEAR  WHEEL  WHICH 
WAS  HAMMERED  FROM  IT  .  .  .  .138 

BRAKE  LEVERS  AND  LINKAGE,  SHOWING  EQUAL- 
IZING ROD  AND  SPRINGS  ....  246 

SHE  is  ACCUMULATING  KNOWLEDGE  OF  AN 
INTRICATE  MACHINE — AND  SHE  is  FASCI- 
NATED   305 


xiii 


.Putnam's  Automobile 
Handbook 


CHAPTER  I 

WHAT  TO  DO  ON  PURCHASING  A  CAR 

THE  man  who  buys  a  car  will  receive  from  the 
salesman  a  certain  amount  of  instruction  as  to 
running  it.  He  will  be  taught  how  to  manipulate 
the  pedals  and  levers,  switches  and  other  devices 
of  the  equipment  and,  if  necessary,  how  to  run 
the  car.  He  will  be  given,  also,  certain  books  of 
instructions. 

It  is  presumable  that  almost  any  man  will 
remember  enough  of  the  salesman's  patter  to 
enable  him  to  get  home  with  the  car,  and  that 
some  bits  of  memory  as  to  the  instruction  books 
will  remain.  But  will  the  owner  get  out  those 
books  and  go  to  school  awhile  with  them  ?  Not  if 
he  is  the  average  owner.  Probably  he  looks  upon 


2         Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

them  as  mere  catalogues  for  ordering  repair  parts 
— well  enough  when  needed.  Do  not  make  that 
mistake.  There  is  no  other  book  printed,  no 
matter  how  complete,  which  supersedes  or  which 
can  be  substituted  for  the  manufacturer's 
book  concerning  his  own  car.  It  was  not  printed 
just  to  consume  paper  and  ink;  the  manufacturer 
had  no  idea  you  would  cut  out  the  pictures  and 
paste  them  about  the  garage.  He  and  his  assist- 
ants spent  a  large  amount  of  time  and  a  larger 
amount  of  gray  matter  in  preparing  those  books 
so  that  you,  Mr.  Owner,  would  know  how  your 
car  is  built,  what  it  ought  to  do,  and  why  it  won't 
unless  you  do  certain  things.  The  books  contain 
in  a  small  compass  practically  everything  about 
your  particular  car.  The  owner  should  master  the 
contents  first  of  all.  Nothing  can  take  its  place. 

If  the  owner  has  not  read  the  instructions, 
lay  down  this  volume  right  now,  go  to  the  garage, 
and  get  the  books  and  read  them  over.  If  you 
haven't  read  them  they  are  still  in  the  car.  The 
manufacturer  made  certain  that  the  owner  could 
not  claim  the  books  were  not  received,  by  tacking 
them  fast  under  the  seat  or  elsewhere  so  that  they 
could  not  get  away  and  so  that  a  forgetful  sales- 
man would  not  overlook  this  important  matter. 
Get  them  out  and  lay  the  basis  of  what  is  to  follow. 


What  to  do  on  Purchasing  a  Car        3 

Doubtless  the  owner  will  find  that  the  manu- 
facturer has,  for  instance,  given  certain  instruc- 
tions concerning  lubrication,  perhaps  has  specified 
certain  kinds  of  lubricants.  Now,  no  matter  how 
much  you  may  know  about  the  subject  of  lubrica- 
tion, rest  assured  that  the  manufacturer  has  had 
an  engineer  study  out  the  lubrication  of  his  car 
and  what  he  writes  concerning  it  is  the  last  word 
and  it  should  be  followed  implicitly.  All  that  is 
contained  in  these  pages  upon  the  subject  of 
lubrication  is  explanatory  and  corrective  and  in 
no  way  can  take  the  place  of  the  manufacturer's 
advice  for  the  particular  car. 

The  same  thing  is  true  as  to  tires,  or  brakes,  or 
steering  gear,  or  any  other  part  of  the  mechanism. 
Read  his  book  first  and  then  turn  to  the  appro- 
priate chapter  here  and  you  will  find  no  divergence, 
only  interpretation,  clarification,  supplementary 
advice. 

Probably  it  would  be  well  to  remind  the  owner 
that  nine-tenths  of  the  complaints  which  reach  the 
manufacturer  or  his  service  stations,  show  that 
the  owners  making  the  "holler"  confess  that  they 
had  not  read  the  books  given  them  with  the  car. 
It  has  become  such  a  serious  thing  that  at  least 
one  manufacturer  has  started  schools  for  pur- 
chasers of  the  make,  where,  at  a  nominal  com- 


4         Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

pensation,  they  may  be  made  to  read  the  instruc- 
tions and  be  given  a  visualization  of  what  they 
mean.  All  owners  cannot  visit  the  centers  where 
such  schools  are  maintained,  and  all  manufacturers 
do  not  maintain  them  now,  though  it  may  be 
necessary  in  the  near  future.  The  fact  that  it  is 
necessary,  Jiowever,  should  leave  the  impress 
upon  the  reader's  mind  of  the  importance  of  the 
subject. 

The  owner,  whether  he  possess  a  "flivver,"  or 
an  edition  de  luxe,  has  about  as  much  money  tied 
up  in  his  car  as  he  feels  he  can  devote  to  that 
form  of  pleasure  or  to  business.  It  is  an  invest- 
ment which  will,  or  will  not,  bring  commensurate 
returns  in  money,  or  moments,  well  spent;  it  can 
be  made  an  indispensable  aid  to  both  business  and 
pleasure,  or  it  may  become  an  unsufferable  nui- 
sance in  either.  The  value  of  a  car  depends  not 
upon  the  amount  of  the  purchase  price,  but  upon 
what  can  be  gotten  out  of  it:  its  service,  its  de- 
pendability and  general  reliability;  that  and  the 
low  cost  of  upkeep  and  operation. 

Would  it  not  seem  reasonable,  therefore,  for 
the  owner  to  give  as  much  thought  and  study  to 
the  machine  which  propels  him  and  his  mer- 
chandise as  to  the  machine  in  the  factory  which 
produces  the  merchandise ;  ought  he  not  to  under- 


What  to  do  on  Purchasing  a  Car        5 

stand  how  and  why  and  wherefore  it  propels 
him — or  why  not? 

Few  men  there  be  who  would  consign  their 
bodies  to  the  mercy  of  wind  and  waves  if  they 
did  not  believe  that  a  competent  captain  and 
engineer  were  aboard  the  craft,  or  to  a  railway 
train  were  there  not  an  engineer  and  conductor  at 
hand  to  look  to  his  safety.  Why  should  he  place 
himself  and  loved  ones  in  a  motor  car  and  start 
off  on  a  trip  with  an  uncertain  hand  at  the  steering 
wheel,  with  no  one  aboard  competent  to  rule  the 
engine,  or  to  know  if  all  other  parts  of  the 
mechanism  are  properly  adjusted,  when  a  mal- 
adjustment may  mean  danger  and  even  death? 

One  would  not  waste  sympathy  upon  the  owner 
himself  in  case  of  an  accident  through  ignorance, 
but  the  fate  of  others  in  his  keeping  prompts  the 
sounding  of  a  warning. 

Years  ago  traveling  sign  painters  decorated 
trees  and  rail  fences  and  barns  along  the  railways 
with  injunctions  of  a  religious  nature,  such  as 
"Prepare  to  Meet  Thy  God."  The  last  time  the 
writer  was  back  "at  the  farm"  this  identical 
message  confronted  him  from  a  big  rock  alongside 
the  railway  crossing,  as  it  did  thirty  or  more 
years  ago.  Only  this  time  it  seemed  appropriate, 
for  there  was  more  recklessness  shown  than 


6         Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

one  cares  to  witness  regularly — it  is  too  nerve- 
racking. 

When  one  considers  that  a  defective  brake,  a 
worn-through  steering  knuckle,  or  any  one  of  a 
number  of  broken  parts — broken  because  neglected 
— may  be  the  particular  weapon  selected  by  the 
fool-killer,  the  owner  who  cares  for  his  bones,  or 
for  the  lives  of  his  passengers,  would  better  spend 
a  few  hours  occasionally  in  looking  after  his  car 
and  in  finding  out  all  that  is  possible  about  it. 

Even  though  the  owner  can  afford  a  chauffeur 
who  "knows  all  about  an  auto,"  it  is  noticeable 
that  chauffeurs  have  a  way  of  forgetting,  that  they 
loaf  on  the  job  shamefully,  that  they  conspire 
with  the  supply  dealer  to  run  the  cost  of  upkeep 
to  skyline  altitudes,  and  are  little  more  immune 
from  road  troubles  than  the  common  or  garden 
variety  of  owner.  The  owner  who  knows  can 
detect  all  these  lapses  from  strict  rectitude,  to  the 
comfort  of  his  person  and  the  safety  of  his  bank 
balance. 

So,  now,  having  turned  to  the  manufacturer's 
books  of  instructions  and  pondered  over  the 
warnings  here  given,  the  reader  may  safely  pass 
on  to  the  chapters  dealing  with  the  beast  he  is 
called  upon  to  tame. 


CHAPTER  II 

SOME   THINGS   TO  AVOID 

WHEN  a  certain  character  of  history,  long 
touted  as  "the  wisest  guy  ever,"  uttered  his 
famous  "Wisdom  crieth  aloud  in  the  street,"  and 
along  with  it,  "Fools  hate  knowledge,"  he  must 
have  had  a  vision  of  the  present  day,  when  there  is 
so  much  and  so  little  known  about  the  chief  mode 
of  transportation,  the  automobile;  so  much  by 
those  who  really  have  studied  its  mechanical 
principles,  and  so  little  by  those  who  are  running 
them  about  the  highways.  Yet  in  this  day  of 
automobile  schools  and  service  stations  there  is  no 
need  of  a  single  individual  being  ignorant,  nor  of 
his  coming  under  the  condemnation  of  the  same 
wise  one :  ' '  The  careless  ease  of  fools  shall  destroy 
them." 

Give  me  an  individual  of  average  intelligence 
in  overalls  and  jumper  and  a  mind  devoid  of  the 
"I  know  it"  error  and  99.99  per  cent,  of  such  can 
be  taught  to  "make  the  auto  auto  as  it  really  ought 


8         Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

to  auto."  The  chief  obstacle  is  the  half  knowledge 
— half  error — which  some  possess. 

Josh  Billings  once  said:  "I'd  rather  not  know  so 
much  than  know  a  lot  that  is  not  so. "  The  reader 
will  get  the  idea. 

One  of  the  hardest  things  for  the  average  man 
to  learn  is  not  to  do  useless  things.  Over  and  over 
folks  will  do  things  contrary  to  all  rules  and  instruc- 
tions and  make  extra  work  for  themselves.  In  a 
school  it  is  a  good  thing,  perhaps,  for  it  enables 
the  instructor  to  point  out  the  futility  of  going  at 
the  thing  wrong  end  first.  There  was  one  class 
at  the  West  Side  Y.  M.  C.  A.  school  particularly 
stupid  in  this  respect.  They  were  set  to  locating 
engine  troubles,  forgot  all  about  the  rules  and  took 
turns  cranking  the  engine,  expecting  in  that  way 
to  find  out  why  the  engine  would  not  run.  The 
instructor,  looking  into  the  classroom,  found  how 
things  were  going.  All  but  one  student  were  intent 
upon  turning  over  the  engine;  that  one  man  stood 
in  one  corner  grinning,  apparently  having  a  good 
time  with  himself.  The  instructor  in  feigned 
amazement  called  out  to  him : 

"Here,  why  are  you  not  cranking  the  engine, 
too?" 

With  a  grin  perfectly  idiotic  the  fellow  drawled 
out: 


Some  Things  to  Avoid  9 

"What's  the  use  of  cranking  if  she  ain't  goin'  to 
run?" 

The  reader  can  figure  out  for  himself  the  relative 
degrees  of  idiocy  or  stupidity  in  that  class.  The 
instructor  quickly  set  them  to  work  by  rule  and 
they  all  knew  in  a  few  minutes  that  troubles  are 
not  located  by  cranking  alone.  The  reader  who 
will  give  careful  attention  to  the  instructions  herein 
contained,  and  who  will  follow  closely  the  rules, 
will  not  be  cranking  the  engine  v^hen  he  should  be 
cleaning  a  spark  plug,  or  adjusting  the  carburetor, 
or  mending  a  broken  wire.  He  will  learn  that 
there  is  a  sequence  in  every  little  job  about  the 
auto  which  tends  to  lessen  the  labor  and  to  produce 
the  best  result,  just  as  there  is  in  keeping  a  set  of 
books,  or  in  running  a  farm. 

The  carpenter  who  does  his  work  without  plans 
usually  is  dubbed  a  "wood  butcher."  The  infer- 
ence is  that  the  man  who  would  care  for  his  auto- 
mobile should  learn  to  do  it  in  a  systematic  way, 
according  to  rule,  doing  everything  always  the 
same  way  and  in  the  same  order.  Thus  the.  labor 
becomes  a  habit  and  is  performed  quickly  and 
easily.  At  the  same  time  habit  must  not  be 
allowed  to  become  a  rut;  the  owner  must  preserve 
originality  and  initiative,  and  native  ingenuity 
is  invaluable. 


io       Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

Particularly  it  is  wise  to  avoid  the  idea  that  at 
the  first  sign  of  something  wrong  one  knows 
just  what  the  trouble  is.  Probably  no  one  thing 
has  caused  more  unnecessary  work  and  unneces- 
sary expletive  than  jumping  at  a  conclusion.  Have 
a  rule  and  go  by  it.  Under  the  chapter  relating 
to  troubles  there  will  be  found  a  rule  for  locating 
them.  It  does  not  matter  so  much  where  one 
starts  if  it  is  followed  through  when  started. 
Experience  will  ."ead  one  in  time  to  select  the 
starting  point,  either  under  the  heading  ignition, 
or  gasoline,  or  other  heading,  the  symptoms 
indicating  generally  to  the  experienced  ear  what 
is  the  matter;  but  there  is  so  much  chance  of  error 
in  this  guess  that  the  rule  must  be  remembered 
and  closely  followed. 

It  takes  three  things  to  start  a  gas  engine 
running:  gasoline  in  the  proper  mixture,  com- 
pression, ani  ignition.  To  keep  it  running  we 
must  add  a  lubricating  and  a  cooling  system. 
There  must  also  be  free  exhaust  for  burned  gases. 
While  there  are  many  phases  of  each,  it  is  neces- 
sary for  the  owner  to  get  these  things  fixed  in  his , 
mind  first.  Everything  else  is  extraneous. 

There  is  something  else  to  avoid.  Avoid  giving 
offense  to  the  policeman  on  the  street,  and  avoid 
running  away  if  you  have  had  an  accident  or  are 


Some  Things  to  Avoid  u 

hailed  by  the  traffic  man.  It  does  not  pay,  and 
will  make  added  trouble,  unless  you  are  as  for- 
tunate in  explanations  as  was  a  fellow  who  was 
caught  by  the  officer  in  front  of  the  Automobile 
School.  He  had  hit  someone  and  instead  of 
stopping  as  the  law  provided,  he  gave  a  hasty  look, 
saw  no  policeman,  and  shot  ahead,  turning  the 
next  corner.  He  dodged  in  and  out  of  several 
streets,  not  seeing  the  motorcycle  policeman 
chasing  him.  When  caught  and  stopped  he  was 
asked  why  he  was  running  away. 

"Me  running  away?"  he  asked.  "I  was  not 
running  away,  I  was  just  trying  to  find  a  cop  to 
report  the  accident." 

It  worked  that  time,  but  it  is  not  safe  to  trust 
the  expedient  under  other  circumstances. 


CHAPTER  III 

WHAT  AN  AUTOMOBILE  IS 

IT  matters  not  whether  one  call  it  an  auto- 
mobile, a  tin  lizzie,  a  gas  wagon,  or  what  not,  it 
consists  of  a  steel  frame  upon  which  are  mounted 
wheels,  an  engine,  appliances  for  connecting  the 
engine  to  the  driving  wheels,  a  fuel  supply  tank,  a 
system  for  producing  ignition  at  the  right  moment, 
and  appliances  for  regulating  the  speed  of  the 
engine  and  the  direction  of  the  car.  A  seat  for  the 
driver  and  sundry  pedals  and  levers  are  needed  to 
accomplish  speed  and  steering  control,  and  sun- 
dry other  parts  have  their  place,  but  the  above 
covers  in  a  general  way  the  necessities  of  an 
automobile. 

An  automobile,  as  the  name  suggests,  is  a  car 
which  contains  its  own  propelling  force  and  to 
which  it  is  not  necessary  to  hitch  a  horse,  or  steam 
engine,  or  something  else  to  make  it  go.  This  in 
spite  of  the  fact  that  occasionally  it  is  necessary  to 
hitch  something  else  to  an  auto  to  make  it  go. 


What  an  Automobile  Is  13 

The  assembly,  generally  speaking,  consists  of 
the  chassis,  corresponding  to  the  running  gear  of  a 
wagon;  the  engine,  mounted  on  the  chassis;  and 
the  body. 

The  chassis  usually  is  made  of  angle  iron  riveted 
together  in  form  convenient  for  supporting  the 
other  parts.  This  rests  upon  the  springs  which 
take  up  the  road  shocks  in  part,  and  the  springs 
rest  upon  the  axles. 

The  rear  axles — there  is  a  separate  axle  for  each 
rear  wheel — are  fixed,  that  is,  they  keep  the  wheels 
from  oscillating,  and  they  are  joined  in  the  center 
by  the  differential,  a  device  driving  the  axle  shafts 
by  which  one  wheel  is  permitted  to  revolve  at  a 
differing  speed  as  compared  with  the  other,  in 
turning  a  corner.  Since,  in  turning,  the  outer 
wheel  must  travel  a  much  longer  distance  than 
the  inside  wheel,  if  no  device  were  installed  to 
take  up  this  difference,  the  outer  wheel  would 
scrape  over  the  ground  on  every  curve,  or  the 
inner  wheel  would  spin  without  forward  motion. 
In  either  event  it  would  be  disastrous  to  tires. 

To  keep  the  differential  housing  from  twisting, 
a  torque  rod  or  tube  connects  it  to  the  frame;  to 
keep  the  rear  axles  at  right  angles  to  the  frame  and 
to  transmit  the  driving  thrust  to  the  load,  radius 
rods  connect  the  axles  to  the  frame  forward. 


14       Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

The  forward  axle,  unlike  in  an  ordinary  wagon, 
is  fastened  to  the  chassis  frame,  through  springs, 
and  does  not  turn.  On  either  end  is  a  yoke  from 
which  is  suspended  a  steering  knuckle,  the  wheel 
turning  on  a  tapered  spindle  forged  with  the 
knuckle.  The  two  knuckles  are  fastened  together 
by  a  tie  rod,  which  has  some  form  of  a  turn  buckle 
by  which  the  wheels  may  be  made  to  run  parallel, 
or  practically  so.  As  a  matter  of  fact  the  wheels  are 
not  parallel.  They  foregather  slightly,  so  that 
the  lines,  projected  forward  far  enough,  would 
meet  and  make  a  pointed  effect,  like  the  bow  of  a 
boat.  Its  effect  is  to  bring  a  slight  but  constant 
pressure  upon  both  wheels  and  makes  them  less 
likely  to  swerve  through  contact  with  road  uneven- 
ness.  Also  the  wheels  undergather,  so  that  the 
load  is  brought  over  the  center  of  knuckle  support, 
minimizing  the  strain. 

This  deviation  of  the  wheels  from  true  produces 
a  very  slight  wear  on  the  tires,  but  it  is  more  than 
compensated  for  by  the  other  advantages  noted. 
The  deviation  is  worked  out  scientifically  and  the 
owner  need  not  trouble  himself  about  it.  His  only 
concern  is  that  the  tie  rod  be  not  bent  so  that  the 
foregather  is  increased,  when  there  would  be 
excess  wear  of  tires. 

The   brake    drums    are    attached   to   the   rear 


^  .^ 


, 


What  an  Automobile  Is  15 

wheels  and  have  inside  and  outside  bands  with 
mechanism  to  tighten  them  against  the  drum 
providing  the  necessary  friction.  The  levers 
which  connect  the  bands  to  the  brake  pedal  or 
emergency  lever  are  termed  the  brake  linkage. 

The  motor,  or  engine,  rests  upon  the  chassis 
frame  forward,  being  fastened  thereto  by  bolts. 
Forward  of  it  is  a  radiator,  if  it  is  a  water-cooled 
motor,  to  which  it  is  connected  by  pipes;  the 
cooling  system  may  be. either  pump  or  thermo- 
syphon  type.  Some  few  motors  are  air-cooled. 
The  principle  of  cooling  is  that  the  motor  should 
be  kept  just  cool  enough  to  prevent  the  lubricating 
oil  from  burning  off  the  cylinder  walls. 

Attached  to  the  motor  are  the  carburetor,  in 
which  air  and  gasoline  are  mixed  properly  for 
rapid  combustion,  wires  to  supply  ignition  to  the 
mixture  at  the  proper  time,  a  device  for  giving 
lubrication,  and  exhaust  pipes  leading  to  the 
muffler,  the  latter  designed  to  stifle  the  noise  of 
rapid  explosions,  which  otherwise  would  be 
deafening. 

The  ignition  system  may  be  either  battery  and 
coil,  or  high-tension  magneto  which  has  its  own 
coil  and  distributor,  or  a  combination  of  both 
these  systems.  Where  there  is  a  self-starter  there 
is  a  storage  battery,  which  supplies  current  to 


1 6       Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

the  starting  motor,  and  from  which  the  ignition 
current  is  drawn,  and  a  generator  to  keep  the 
battery  charged,  and  the  generator  may  be  pro- 
vided with  a  circuit  breaker  and  distributor,  or  a 
separate  magneto  or  coil  may  be  used. 

The  lubricating  device  may  either  be  a  gravity 
or  force-feed  oiler  system  with  pipes  leading  to  the 
various  bearings,  or  the  chief  lubrication  may  be 
by  the  splash  system,  where  a  reservoir  of  oil  is 
kept  under  the  crank  case  from  which  it  is  pumped 
to  oil  pans  under  the  cranks,  being  splashed  by 
projections  which  dip  into  the  oil  and  throw  it  all 
over  the  inside  mechanism. 

Also  attached  to  the  carburetor  is  the  pipe 
from  the  fuel  supply  tank.  This  supply  may  come 
by  gravity  or  under  pressure,  and  a  late  device 
which  is  furnished  with  many  cars  is  a  vacuum 
gravity  system,  the  gasoline  being  drawn  from 
the  main  tank,  by  a  vacuum  created  in  the  intake 
manifold,  into  a  small  container  attached  under 
the  hood,  whence  it  flows  by  gravity  to  the 
carburetor,  maintaining  a  uniform  supply. 

The  motor  consists  of  one  or  more  cylinders, 
inside  of  each  being  a  piston  which  fits  tight,  the 
escape  of  gas  being  further  prevented  by  piston 
rings  which  seal  the  cylinder  with  the  aid  of  the 
lubricating  oil.  The  pistons  are  attached  to  a 


What  an  Automobile  Is  17 

connecting  rod  by  a  wrist  pin,  the  connecting  rod 
being  attached  at  the  other  end  to  the  crank 
which  rests  in  bearings.  The  action  of  the  engine 
is  that  by  drawing  down  the  piston  a  vacuum  is 
created  in  the  upper  part  of  the  cylinder  called 
the  combustion  chamber.  At  the  right  moment 
an  inlet  valve  is  opened  and  a  charge  of  gas  and 
air,  called  mixture,  is  sucked  in.  The  valve  closes 
and  the  piston  rising  compresses  the  charge. 
When  the  piston  reaches  its  highest  point  a  spark 
is  introduced  through  spark  plug  or  igniter.  This 
fires  the  mixture,  bringing  a  rapid  expansion,  and 
this  drives  the  piston  downward,  producing  force. 
This  revolves  the  crank  shaft,  which  turns  the 
force  into  rotary  motion.  This  operation  repeated 
rapidly  furnishes  the  motion  which  drives  the  car. 
The  fly  wheel  carries  the  crank  over  the  strokes 
which  do  not  produce  power. 

There  are  four  strokes  to  each  motor  cycle. 
The  first,  which  takes  in  the  mixture,  is  called  the 
suction  stroke;  the  next  is  the  compression  stroke, 
the  third  is  the  power  stroke,  and  the  last  is  the 
exhaust  stroke  when  the  burned  gases  are  expelled 
from  the  combustion  chamber.  These  four 
strokes  take  two  complete  revolutions  of  the 
crank  shaft,  so  that  the  four  cycle  is  really  two 
circles. 


1 8       Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

Power  having  been  created  and  turned  into 
motion,  the  next  step  is  to  connect  it  to  the  pro- 
pelling or  drive  wheels.  The  first  device  for 
controlling  the  power  is  the  clutch,  which  provides 
means  of  applying  or  cutting  off  the  power  or 
motion  quickly  without  stopping  the  engine. 
This  is  done  by  friction  in  some  form.  The  most 
common  are  the  cone  clutch,  where  male  and 
female  cones  are  engaged  by  pressure,  the  friction 
transmitting  the  power  to  the  driving  shaft ;  and  the 
multiple  disc  clutch,  where  numerous  thin  discs  of 
metal  or  metal  and  textile  material  are  compressed 
together  by  a  lever  and  transmit  the  power. 

To  provide  for  varying  speeds  and  for  reversing, 
also  extra  power  to  the  rear  wheels  for  hill  climb- 
ing, sandy  roads,  etc.,  gears  are  necessary.  In  a 
general  way  this  is  a  set  of  cog  wheels  of  varying 
sizes,  so  arranged  on  parallel  shafts  that  by  engag- 
ing different  size  gears  on  the  shafts  a  certain 
speed  will  be  transmitted,  other  gear  sets  producing 
another  speed  or  a  reverse  motion.  The  diagram 
in  Chapter  XXI.  shows  the  usual  form  of  construc- 
tion. Three  speeds  and  reverse  usually  are  pro- 
vided, though  some  cars  have  four  speeds.  These 
gear  sets  are  engaged  successively  until  the  desired 
speed  is  reached. 

From  the  gear  case  the  power  is  transmitted 


What  an  Automobile  Is  19 

by  the  drive  shaft,  which  has  one  or  two  universal 
joints  to  take  up  any  misalignment  and  to  enable 
installing  the  engine  level  and  yet  transmit  the 
power  to  the  driving  axles,  through  the  differential, 
at  another  level  or  angle,  or  at  varying  angles  due 
to  spring  action. 

Upon  each  of  the  wheels  is  a  tire  consisting  of  a 
rubber  and  fabric  casing,  enclosing  a  soft  rubber 
tube  with  a  valve  by  which  it  may  be  inflated. 
The  purpose  of  the  tires  is  to  absorb  road  shocks 
and  make  riding  easy,  as  well  as  to  keep  the  car 
from  jolting  to  pieces.  The  tires  are  of  varying 
composition  and  form  and  are  attached  to  the 
rims  in  differing  ways.  Many  auto  trucks  use  solid 
rubber  tires. 

Without  going  into  detail,  the  foregoing  gives 
the  makeup  of  the  car  and  the  simple  principles 
of  its  operation.  To  control  the  car  requires 
various  other  parts.  The  first  is  the  steering 
wheel  and  its  mechanism.  The  wheel  is  mounted 
on  a  shaft  running  within  a  tube,  and  to  the  lower 
end  of  this  shaft  is  a  worm  controlling  a  gear,  and 
by  levers  and  ball  joints  operating  the  steering 
knuckle  on  one  of  the  front  wheels,  the  other  being 
operated  simultaneously  by  the  tie  rod  connection. 
On  the  steering  wheel  or  steering  column  are 
mounted  cne  spark-timing  lever  and  the  throttle 


2O       Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

lever.  The  spark  lever  regulates  the  time  of 
the  spark  within  the  combustion  chamber  and 
the  throttle  the  amount  of  mixture  admitted  to  the 
combustion  chamber. 

At  the  feet  of  the  driver  are  the  pedal  for  engag- 
ing the  clutch,  that  for  applying  the  brake,  and 
the  accelerator  pedal,  which  operates  the  throttle 
as  well  as  the  lever  before  mentioned.  The 
throttle  lever  on  the  steering  column  is  for  the 
regular  running  adjustment,  while  the  accelerator 
pedal  is  for  temporary  increase  of  the  mixture  in 
starting  or  in  speeding  up.  There  may  also  be  a 
pedal  for  the  self-starter,  though  the  switch  often 
is  upon  the  dash.  On  the  Ford  and  some  other 
cars  the  gear  shift  is  controlled  by  pedals,  but 
usually  the  shift  is  made  by  a  lever  placed  con- 
venient to  the  right  hand  of  the  driver.  With  it 
is  installed  also  the  emergency  brake  lever,  which 
is  used  for  locking  the  car  when  standing  and  for 
alternating  with  the  foot  brake  on  long  hills. 

On  the  dashboard  may  be  mounted  the  ignition 
and  lighting  switch,  the  speedometer,  sight  oil 
feed,  and  sundry  other  dials  and  switches,  de- 
pending upon  the  fastidiousness  of  the  owner. 
Where  there  is  a  self-starter  there  is  a  charge  and 
discharge  dial,  the  ammeter,  which  tells  whether 
the  generator  is  working,  and  how. 


CHAPTER  IV 

WHAT   MAKES   THE   ENGINE   GO 

As  has  been  stated  on  a  previous  page,  it  takes 
three  things  to  start  an  engine  and  three  more  to 
keep  it  going.  The  first  three  essentials  are  a 
proper  mixture  of  gasoline  and  air,  ignition  at  the 
right  moment,  and  compression. 

Gasoline  will  continue  to  burn  after  ignition, 
but,  contrary  to  the  common  idea,  it  will  not 
explode  unless  confined,  and  not  even  then  unless 
it  has  vaporized  and  the  vapor  is  mixed  with 
air.  It  takes  about  two  hundred  cubic  feet  of 
air  to  a  pint  of  gasoline  vaporized  to  produce  good 
combustion,  though  the  air  supply  is  usually 
much  more  than  this  to  insure  carrying  off  the 
unburned  nitrogen  from  the  air.  For  starting 
and  speeding  up,  more  gasoline  is  admitted  to 
the  vaporizing  chamber  as  the  rich  mixture  ig- 
nites more  quickly,  but  for  running,  a  leaner 
mixture  produces  better  results. 

But  whatever  the  mixture  which  is  burned, 


22       Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

there  would  be  little  or  no  power  produced  if  the 
mixture  were  not  confined  under  pressure.  It  is, 
of  course,  a  fact  that  a  tank  filled  with  gasoline 
vapor  and  air  will  explode  with  great  force  if 
ignited,  though  there  be  only  the  ordinary  at- 
mospheric pressure  upon  the  tank.  But  it  must 
be  remembered  that  if  the  pressure  were  sixty  or 
seventy  pounds  to  the  square  inch  the  explosion 
would  destroy  everything  in  the  vicinity.  Taking 
advantage  of  this  fact  the  designers  of  the  gasoline 
engine  provided  for  compressing  the  gas  before 
ignition,  to  produce  the  greatest  amount  of  power 
for  driving  the  car.  Valves  are  provided  which 
admit  the  charge  of  mixture  to  the  combustion 
chamber,  closing  tight  after  the  charge  is  received. 
Then  the  piston  rises,  compressing  the  contents 
of  the  combustion  chamber  until  a  pressure  of 
between  forty  and  seventy-five  pounds  per  square 
inch  is  reached.  It  is  upon  the  principle  of  the 
muzzle-loading  rifle  or  shotgun,  or  in  blasting, 
where  the  charge  is  tamped  down,  or  confined  by 
wads,  and  the  exploding  powder  is  held  until  the 
pressure  sends  the  bullet  on  its  errand,  or  rends 
the  rock. 

Just  as  the  piston  reaches  the  highest  point,  and 
the  compression  is  at  the  maximum,  a  spark  is 
introduced  into  the  combustion  chamber.  Under 


What  Makes  the  Engine  Go          23 

the  pressure  the  gases  burn  much  more  rapidly 
and  the  explosive  force  is  greater.  The  gas  does 
not  burn  instantaneously,  however.  It  takes  a 
distinct  interval  of  time  for  all  the  gas  mixture 
to  ignite;  for  this  reason,  when  the  engine  is 
running  under  its  own  power,  the  spark  comes 
just  before  the  time  of  greatest  pressure,  and 
before  the  piston  reaches  top  center,  so  that 
by  the  time  the  piston  starts  the  downward 
stroke  the  highest  efficiency  of  power  will  have 
been  reached.  For  this  reason  the  spark-timing 
control  lever  is  advanced  after  the  engine 
is  started  to  give  the  best  results.  But  the 
engine  is  always  cranked  with  the  spark  fully 
retarded. 

The  carburetor,  meanwhile,  has  been  called 
upon  to  send  into  the  combustion  chamber  through 
the  intake  manifold  and  intake  valves  a  charge 
of  gas  mixture;  the  quantity  is  regulated  by  the 
throttle.  For  starting,  a  lever  is  manipulated 
which  depresses  the  float  in  the  fuel  chamber  of 
the  carburetor,  permitting  an  extra  supply  to  be 
drawn  into  the  mixing  chamber,  thus  making  the 
mixture  richer  and  more  readily  fired.  When  the 
engine  has  started  running,  the  throttle  is  closed 
to  a  point  where  the  motor  does  net  race.  The 
correct  running  position  is  given  by  the  manu- 


24-      Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

facturer  and  experience  will  soon  determine  where 
the  best  results  are  obtained. 

The  ignition  system  must  deliver  to  the  com- 
bustion chamber  at  the  right  instant  a  spark  of 
sufficient  intensity  to  fire  the  charge.  Whether 
the  electric  current  is  obtained  from  battery  or 
magneto,  it  must  be  hot  enough  to  do  its  work  and 
there  must  be  a  timing  device  which  will  send  the 
spark  into  each  cylinder  when  it  is  needed.  These 
come  in  several  forms  and  are  described  in  detail 
in  the  manufacturer's  instruction  books,  in  con- 
nection with  the  ignition  and  wiring  diagrams. 

The  compression  is  maintained  when  the  piston 
rings  and  grooves  are  free  from  gummed  oil  or 
carbon  and  move  freely;  when  the  cylinder  walls 
are  not  worn  oval  by  a  slapping  piston,  or  creased 
by  carbon,  and  when  a  film  of  lubricating  oil  is 
constant  on  the  side  walls  and  when  valves  are 
properly  seated.  Loss  of  compression  means  loss 
of  power  and  the  cylinders  should  be  tested  every 
little  while  to  make  sure  that  no  cylinder  is  failing 
to  do  its  duty.  More  will  be  said  concerning  this 
later,  as  well  as  of  minor  things  which  may  affect 
the  compression. 

As  has  been  mentioned,  to  keep  the  engine 
running  for  any  length  of  time  there  must  be  a 
cooling  system,  a  system  of  lubrication,  and  a  free 


What  Makes  the  Engine  Go          25 

exhaust.  Once  the  owner  comprehends  the  sim- 
plicity of  gas-engine  operation,  he  can  begin  to 
trace  each  part  of  the  operation,  learning  all  there 
is  to  know  concerning  the  several  steps  in  his 
own  motor,  and  absorbing  the  specific  knowledge 
which  will  enable  him  to  care  for  his  car  effi- 
ciently and  economically. 


CHAPTER  V 

EQUIPMENT  AND  ACCESSORIES 

WITH  every  car  are  furnished  all  the  things 
required  for  operation,  including  lamps,  tire  pump, 
jack,  tire-repair  kit,  a  variety  of  wrenches  to  fit  all 
nuts  and  bolts,  oil  can,  set  of  spark  plugs  and 
generally  an  extra  one;  hammer,  screw  driver,  cold 
chisel,  magneto-adjusting  wrench,  and  some  other 
things,  varying  with  the  car. 

There  are  any  number  of  additions  which  may 
be  made  in  the  way  of  tools,  or  of  devices  which 
some  motorists  deem  desirable.  Some  of  these 
things  are  a  speedometer,  a  clock,  trouble  lamp 
attachable  to  a  socket  on  the  dash,  a  mirror  to 
enable  the  driver  to  see  what  is  going  on  back  of 
him  (compulsory  in  New  Jersey  and  some  other 
States),  cigar  lighters,  foot  warmers,  and  elaborate 
lights  for  the  limousine.  The  owner  is  cautioned, 
however,  against  loading  up  his  battery  with  a 
lot  of  electrical  devices  which  use  up  current  very 
26 


Equipment  and  Accessories  27 

fast.  Not  so  as  to  tools;  one  may  err  in  having 
too  few  rather  than  too  many. 

While  it  is  true  that  a  woman  with  a  hairpin 
and  a  piece  of  string  can  fix  almost  anything 
under  the  sun,  the  autoist  would  better  not  trust 
to  his  wife's  ingenuity,  but  be  a  little  better 
prepared  for  the  emergencies  of  the  road.  It  does 
not  do  any  good  to  know  what  the  matter  is  when 
the  car  balks  unless  one  has  the  tools  and  material 
to  do  the  necessary  repair  work  or  adjustment. 

Every  new  car  is  equipped  with  certain  tools, 
but  some  owners  have  no  interest  in  these  tools 
and  lose  most  of  them  in  a  short  time,  so  that 
when  needed  they  are  missing,  while  other  owners 
add  sufficient  tools  to  equip  a  good-sized  machine 
shop. 

A  wise  selection  of  tools  for  the  car  will  provide 
everything  at  all  likely  to  be  needed  on  tour,  and 
yet  capable  of  being  packed  in  such  a  compact 
space  that  it  does  not  become  an  annoyance 
through  the  room  occupied,  nor  weigh  down  the 
car.  The  special  tools  furnished  should  be  pre- 
served with  great  care,  because  nothing  else  fills 
the  bill  quite  so  well.  To  these  might  be  added 
some  few  tools  and  parts  not  needed  often,  but 
when  they  are,  their  absence  is  a  source  of  delay 
and  is  temper-provoking. 


28       Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

Recently  the  author  was  asked  to  go  about 
fifty  miles  into  the  country  to  bring  in  a  machine 
which  had  refused  to  run  and  had  been  stored  in  a 
barn  over  night.  He  found  that  the  interrupter 
points  had  become  glazed  so  that  no  spark  was 
being  procured.  A  special  file  is  manufactured 
for  the  particular  purpose  of  cleaning  off  these 
points.  As  one  of  these  was  not  in  the  car,  it  was 
necessary  to  disassemble  the  spark  timer  com- 
pletely, take  out  the  points,  and  then  find  a  piece 
of  flat  hard  stone  upon  which  the  points  could  be 
cleaned.  This  did  the  work  all  right,  but  much 
time  could  have  been  saved  if  the  interrupter 
point  file  had  been  carried  in  the  car. 

Likewise  no  wrench  was  available  for  adjusting 
the  points  and  it  was  necessary  to  go  to  a  nearby 
blacksmith  shop  and  saw  out  a  temporary  wrench 
for  the  purpose.  Word  has  come  from  France  to 
the  National  War  Work  Council  of  the  Y.  M.  C.  A. 
that  one  of  their  supply  cars  serving  the  huts  in 
the  trenches  was  laid  up  nine  days  for  the  lack  of  a 
small  magneto  wrench. 

Many  an  owner  has  had  the  experience  of  being 
caught  out  on  the  road  by  a  storm  and  having  to 
put  on  non-skid  chains.  How  often  have  they 
found  that,  though  these  chains  were  in  good 
condition  when  leaving  the  garage  and  when  they 


Equipment  and  Accessories  29 

were  put  on,  after  running  awhile  over  rough  roads 
at  a  fair  speed,  some  of  the  links  wore  through 
and  began  to  thrash  against  the  mud  guards. 
This  is  not  only  annoying,  but  often  does  real 
damage  to  the  guards.  Most  owners  have  stopped 
more  than  once  to  wire  the  loose  ends  to  the  side 
chains  to  stop  the  banging,  and  it  certainly  would 
be  more  satisfactory  to  carry  a  supply  of  links 
and  a  chain  tool  so  that  the  broken  ends  could  be 
removed  and  new  links  inserted. 

Of  course,  the  loose  ends  can  be  pried  off  with  a 
screw  driver  and  new  links  pounded  fast  with  a 
hammer,  but  you  will  have  to  remove  the  chain  to 
do  it  and  it  takes  time,  and  much  exasperation 
can  be  saved  by  using  the  proper  tool. 

A  folding  pail  is  very  useful,  especially  when 
one  has  to  go  up  very  long  hills  and  finds  that  the 
water  in  the  radiator  has  boiled  away.  The  cooling 
systems  for  automobile  engines  to-day  are  very 
efficient  and  it  is  only  in  exceptional  cases  that 
the  water  will  boil  out  of  the  radiator,  and  that  is 
just  the  reason  why  an  occurrence  of  that  sort 
is  disastrous,  because  one  is  not  expecting  it  and 
is  not  prepared  for  it. 

In  sandy  country  and  on  dirt  roads  one  often 
will  have  occasion  to  jack  up  a  wheel  to  change  a 
tire,  and  will  find  that  the  jack  sinks  into  the  loose 


30       Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

sand  or  dust  instead  of  lifting  the  car.  A  block  of 
wood  an  inch  thick  and  about  six  inches  wide  and 
a  foot  long  will  be  found  a  big  help  under  such 
circumstances.  Many  drivers  also  have  had  to 
use  a  fence  rail  to  jack  up  a  car  because  some  one 
borrowed  the  jack  from  the  car  and  neglected  to 
return  it.  Even  though  tire  trouble  is  not  ex- 
pected, it  is  well  to  make  sure  there  is  a  jack  in  the 
car  and  also  a  handle  for  the  jack.  The  jack  is 
more  often  found  than  the  handle. 

Working  about  an  automobile  means  a  lot  of 
grease  and  grime  on  the  hands,  and  possibly  oil 
or  grease  upon  parts  of  the  car,  so  that  it  is  well 
to  carry  a  small  bag  of  waste  or  rags.  If  the  grease 
or  dirt  prove  obstinate,  a  little  gasoline,  drawn 
from  the  drain  cock  at  the  bottom  of  the  car- 
buretor, will  cut  it  and  enable  you  to  clean  the 
hands  fairly  well. 

It  is  a  good  idea  to  have  a  three-in-one  of  similar 
tire-valve  tool  with  which  it  is  possible  to  remove 
the  valve  plunger,  cut  threads  in  the  valve  stem 
so  that  the  plunger  may  be  properly  seated,  and 
cut  threads  on  the  outside  of  the  stem  so  that  the 
cap  will  screw  down  tight.  In  some  cases  where 
the  valve  stem  is  battered  in  changing  a  tire,  air 
cannot  be  gotten  into  the  tire  if  these  threads  are 
damaged. 


Equipment  and  Accessories  31 

Many  persons  object  to  carrying  a  tow  rope  for 
fear  it  will  be  understood  that  they  have  doubts 
of  their  ability  to  get  home  under  their  own 
power;  but  in  addition  to  affording  a  connection 
to  some  other  source  of  power,  a  tow  rope  may  be 
used  to  help  a  brother  in  distress  and  is  superior 
to  chains  in  very  sandy  or  muddy  places,  when 
wrapped  about  the  tire. 

An  extra  set  of  electric-light  bulbs  may 
save  considerable  trouble  and  annoyance,  be- 
cause the  traffic  policemen  to-day  will  accept 
no  excuse  when  at  least  one  light  is  not 
burning. 

If  you  do  not  take  your  wife's  first-aid  kit — 
the  shoestring  and  hairpin — you  had  better  be 
provided  with  a  spool  of  soft  iron  wire,  the  ordi- 
nary stovepipe  wire.  It  is  wonderful  how  many 
little  temporary  repair  jobs  may  be  done  with  its 
aid.  Some  drivers  like  to  have  a  small  hank  of 
strong  twine  also. 

There  are  many  other  things  which  might  be 
added  to  the  list  of  useful  things  to  have  along  for 
emergency,  all  of  which  may  be  stowed  in  the  tool 
box  or  under  a  seat.  They  may  not  be  needed 
once  a  year — perhaps  never — but  like  the  insur- 
ance policy,  when  you  do  need  a  tool  you  need  it 
pretty  badly. 


32       Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

AUTOMOBILE  FIRST-AID   KIT. 

1.  Wrench  for  adjusting  ignition  interrupter 

points. 

2.  File  for  cleaning  above  points. 

3.  One  set  of  ignition  brushes.  (In  box  labeled.) 

4.  Several    extra    spark    plugs,    cleaned    and 

adjusted  ready  to  use. 

5.  Tow  rope. 

6.  Half-dozen  valve  plungers  for  inner  tubes. 

7.  Three-in-one  tire-valve  tool. 

8.  Tire  pressure  gauge. 

9.  Jack   and      handle.      (Be   sure   about   the 

handle.) 

10.  Squirt  can  full  of  oil. 

11.  Voltmeter,    or    hydrometer,    for    testing 

battery. 

12.  Box  of  assorted  nuts. 

13.  Box  of  assorted  cotter  pins. 

14.  Box  of  assorted  cap  screws. 

15.  Box  of  assorted  washers. 

1 6.  Spool  of  copper  wire  and  one  of  soft  iron  wire. 

17.  Full  set  of  electric-light  bulbs. 

1 8.  Bag  of  clean  waste  or  rags. 

19.  Two  blocks  of  wood,  6"  x  12"  x  i". 

20.  Full  set  of  fuses — if  fuses  are  used. 

21.  Folding  pail. 

22.  Chain  tool  and  several  cross  links. 

The  nuts,  cap  screws,  washers,  and  cotter  pins  of 
regular  assortment  and  packed  in  boxes  are 
carried  by  supply  stores.  These  and  several 
of  the  other  articles  may  be  packed  in  a  cigar 
box  for  stowing  away. 


CHAPTER  VI 
IF  WELL  "SLICKED"  THE  ENGINE  RUNt> 

IF  we  scuff  our  feet  on  the  bare  pavement  we 
wear  out  our  shoes,  develop  a  lot  of  heat,  and 
notice  considerable  resistance ;  but  if  we  step  on  a 
banana  peel,  a  piece  of  ice,  or  a  patch  of  oil  or 
grease,  our  passage  is  facilitated,  and  our  feet  are 
likely  to  slide  out  from  under  us  and  we  sit  down 
with  little  effort.  Now  this  is  just  like  the  auto 
engine.  If  the  parts  were  all  made  perfect  and 
fitted  together  properly  and  the  engine  started 
without  lubrication,  there  would  be  so  much  fric- 
tion that  the  parts  would  very  quickly  wear 
out. 

As  a  matter  of  fact  an  engine  could  be  wrecked 
in  less  than  half  an  hour's  running,  unless  there 
were  something  introduced  to  prevent  friction. 

The  lubrication  of  the  modern  auto  engine  is 
so  simple  that  most  owners  do  not  realize  its 
importance.  It  is  the  things  which  normally 
take  care  of  themselves  that  are  most  likely  to  be 

3  33 


34       Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

neglected;  the  things  about  which  we  know  the 
least,  when  they  do  go  wrong,  cause  the  greatest 
damage,  not  the  things  with  which  we  have  become 
familiar  through  frequent  tinkering. 

The  instruction  books  issued  by  the  manufac- 
turers say  to  inspect  the  oil  reservoir  of  the  engine 
each  time  before  leaving  the  garage  to  see  if  the 
required  amount  of  oil  is  there;  and  this  inspec- 
tion should  not  be  neglected ;  with  most  owners  it  is 
"by  guess  and  begorry." 

The  most  usual  scheme  of  engine  lubrication 
used  to-day  is  to  carry  a  certain  amount  of  oil  in  a 
compartment  in  the  bottom  of  the  crank  case, 
called  the  sump.  There  is  a  pump  which  operates 
whenever  the  engine  is  running  and  which  pumps 
the  oil  to  some  sort  of  an  indicator  on  the  dash, 
so  that  the  driver  can  see  if  it  is  circulating.  From 
this  point  it  flows  by  gravity  to  the  splash  pans 
located  under  the  connecting  rods,  and  above  the 
sump.  Here  the  oil  is  held  at  such  a  level  that 
when  the  crank  shaft  revolves  the  ends  of  the 
connecting  rods  dip  into  the  oil  and  splash  it  over 
practically  all  the  working  parts  of  the  engine. 
This  splashing  and  agitation  of-  the  oil  creates  a 
fog  of  oil  in  the  crank  case,  and  the  rapid  motion  of 
the  piston  and  other  parts  circulates  the  vaporized 
oil  over  the  moving  members,  so  that  a  film  of  oil  is 


I? 


If  Well  " Slicked"  the  Engine  Runs   35 

deposited  even  on  those  parts  where  the  splash 
itself  does  not  reach. 

The  pump  circulates  more  oil  than  is  used  and 
the  splash  pans  are  arranged  with  overflow  open- 
ings so  that  the  excess  simply  drops  back  into  the 
sump  and  again  is  passed  through  the  system  by 
the  pump. 

It  is  this  oil  which  enables  the  engine  to  move 
without  friction.  It  is  the  effect  of  the  banana 
peel  under  your  heel  in  that  it  makes  the  parts 
slip  over  each  other  easily.  In  addition  to  this 
the  oil  between  the  piston  and  the  cylinder  wall 
makes  a  seal  which  prevents  gas  from  leaking  by 
on  compression  and  explosion  strokes.  If  too 
much  oil  is  fed  a  great  deal  will  be  drawn  past 
the  piston  on  the  suction  stroke  and  get  in  the 
cylinder  where  it  will  burn,  forming  carbon  and 
giving  out  smoke  from  the  exhaust. 

In  this  type  of  system  the  principal  causes  of 
trouble  are  too  much  oil  in  the  sump,  so  that  the 
level  reaches  above  the  splash  pans,  and  projec- 
tions upon  the  connecting  rods  that  are  so  large 
that  too  much  oil  is  splashed  when  the  level  is 
normal.  In  the  latter  case  the  trouble  often  may 
be  remedied  by  narrowing  the  projections  of  the 
connecting  rod  which  dip  into  the  oil.  It  is  not 
wise  to  shorten  these  projections,  because  it  is  very 


36       Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

difficult  to  get  an  even  graduation  that  will  insure 
sufficient  oil  without  giving  too  much. 

If  the  oil  should  run  out  while  the  car  is  in  use, 
the  engine  will  get  stiff,  lose  its  power,  and  the 
friction  of  the  unlubricated  parts  will  generate 
sufficient  heat  to  melt  out  the  lining  of  the  bear- 
ings, and  if  the  engine  runs  for  any  length  of  time 
in  this  condition  it  may  be  wrecked  beyond  repair. 

This  means  that  although  the  oiling  system 
needs  very  little  or  no  attention,  it  should  be 
inspected  each  time  before  leaving  the  garage  and 
on  the  road  occasionally  if  long  trips  are  taken,  to 
make  sure  that  oil  is  present  in  sufficient  quantity 
and  is  circulating. 

Oil  in  a  sense  does  wear  out  and  in  this  sort  of  a 
system  it  should  be  replaced  with  new  oil  occasion- 
ally. Some  of  it  will  work  up  past  the  piston  and 
be  burned  up  and  some  will  work  out  around  the 
different  parts  of  the  engine  and  be  lost,  but  most 
of  it  will  remain  in  the  sump  longer  than  it  is 
advisable  to  use  it.  All  of  the  gasoline  that  is 
taken  into  the  cylinder  is  usually  not  consumed. 
Some  of  it  is  forced  past  the  piston  on  the  com- 
pression stroke  into  the  crank  case,  where  it 
condenses  and  mixes  with  the  oil.  This  thins  the 
oil  sometimes  to  a  point  where  it  has  little  or  no 
lubricating  value.  Also  the  oil  on  the  inside  of  the 


If  Well  "  SUcked"  the  Engine  Runs   37 

piston  head  burns  and  drops  down  into  the  crank 
case,  and  there  is  some  wear  of  the  moving  parts 
which  causes  a  deposit  of  metal  in  the  oil.  These 
things,  together  with  the  small  amount  of  road 
dust  sucked  in  through  the  breather  pipe,  make  the 
oil  in  a  short  time  unfit  for  use. 

In  this  circulating  splash  system,  where  the  oil 
is  used  over  and  over  again,  the  oil  should  be 
drained  out  entirely  about  every  1000  miles,  more 
or  less,  depending  upon  the  grade  of  the  oil  and 
fit  of  the  piston.  The  following  things  all  enter 
into  the  lubricating  value  of  the  oil  after  1000 
miles'  performance: 

Grade  of  the  oil 

Fit  of  the  pistons 

Temperature  at  which  the  engine  is  run 

Grade  of  the  gasoline 

Adjustment  of  the  carburetor. 

There  are  some  other  things,  but  the  above  are 
the  chief  factors.  It  would  be  well  to  acquire  the 
habit  of  examining  the  oil  every  few  days  to 
determine  just  how  it  stands  up  in  the  particular 
engine. 

After  the  oil  is  drained  out,  a  half  gallon  or  so  of 
kerosene  should  be  poured  into  the  sump  and  the 
engine  run  for  about  one  minute  or  less,  the  idea 
being  to  get  a  complete  circulation  of  kerosene 


38       Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

through  the  lubricating  system.  The  kerosene 
should  then  be  drained  off  and  the  splash  pans 
under  the  connecting  rods  be  wiped  out  if  possible. 
The  screen  of  the  oil  pump  also  should  be  removed 
and  washed  carefully  in  kerosene  and  replaced. 
Then  the  sump  should  be  filled  to  the  proper  level 
with  fresh  oil. 

Aside  from  getting  under  the  car  to  remove  the 
drain  plug,  this  is  not  a  dirty  job.  Still  one  would 
better  put  on  old  clothes  and  overalls  to  prevent 
the  possibility  of  getting  grease  on  a  perfectly 
good  suit. 

While  oil  is  expensive,  it  is  poor  economy  to  use 
it  beyond  its  useful  stage,  because  damage  may  be 
done  to  the  machinery  which  will  cost  much  more 
than  a  year's  supply  of  good  oil. 


CHAPTER  VII 

WHERE  LUBRICATION  IS  NEGLECTED 

IN  some  of  the  minor  and  oftentimes  hidden 
parts  of  an  automobile  are  found  frequent  sources 
of  trouble.  There  are  places  to  be  lubricated  of 
which  many  an  auto  owner  has  no  knowledge. 
They  wear  slowly  but  constantly,  and  unless  given 
proper  attention  will  erelong  give  trouble. 

There  are  a  number  of  these  lesser  bearings  which 
tell  the  expert  whether  the  car  has  had  proper  care. 
In  fact,  in  looking  over  a  used  car  the  man  who 
knows  naturally  turns  to  these  first  to  find  out 
how  well  the  car  has  been  taken  care  of.  Ex- 
perience shows  that  even  where  other  parts  show 
normal,  or  practically  no  wear,  these  lesser  bear- 
ings show  absolute  neglect,  and  these  are  "the  little 
foxes  that  spoil  the  vineyards"  in  the  auto  world. 

Practically  every  owner  will  fill  up  the  oiler  to 
insure  engine  lubrication,  because  that  is  a  regular 
task;  most  men  will  remember  to  keep  oil  in  the 
transmission  case  and  the  differential  housing; 

39 


4®       Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

probably  a  lesser  number  will  put  grease  in  the 
wheel  bearings  when  needed.  As  the  latter  is  not 
required  very  often,  it  is  frequently  forgotten. 

What  are  the  neglected  parts?  Well,  when  the 
expert  looks  into  the  condition  of  a  car,  one  of  the 
first  places  he  inspects  for  wear  is  at  the  steering 
knuckles.  One  must  realize  that  they  are  under  a 
pretty  heavy  load,  and  that,  while  the  motion  is  not 
great,  there  is  a  continual  motion  there,  even  when 
the  car  is  driving  straight  ahead.  Very  few  have 
learned  that  it  needs  a  constant  supply  of  good, 
heavy  grease  to  prevent  wear  at  this  point.  It  is 
worth  while  to  screw  down  on  the  grease  cups  on 
the  steering  knuckles  every  time  oil  is  put  in  the 
engine.  When  the  grease  cup  is  screwed  down  so 
that  it  cannot  be  turned  further,  it  should  be 
filled  immediately.  There  should  be  enough 
grease  there  to  keep  forcing  it  out,  so  that  grit 
cannot  get  into  the  bearing. 

Underneath  the  floor  boards  there  are  a  number 
of  parts  which  need  attention,  but  being  out  of 
sight  they  are  often  out  of  mind.  They  are  a  little 
inconvenient  to  get  at,  also.  Under  there  we 
have  the  universal  joint.  This  is  another  joint 
in  which  the  motion  is  not  great,  but  the  load  is 
heavy  and  continuous.  That  is  the  next  place  that 
usually  shows  hard  wear.  There  are  one  or  two 


Where  Lubrication  Is  Neglected       41 

modern  designs  which  have  housings  covering 
this  joint  which  may  be  filled  with  heavy  oil  and 
it  then  takes  care  of  itself  for  a  month.  It  should 
be  inspected  and  the  oil  replaced  once  a  month. 

Certain  universal  joints,  not  generally  used, 
however,  are  supplied  with  grease  cups,  which 
need  attention  every  time  the  car  is  used,  just  as 
much  as  the  oiler  in  the  engine. 

Also  underneath  the  floor  boards  are  the  levers 
and  arms  used  for  controlling  the  clutch  and 
brake,  the  self-starter  and  the  accelerator.  All 
have  bearings,  used  occasionally,  but  enough  so 
that  they  should  be  kept  lubricated  or  they  will 
wear.  This  is  especially  true  of  the  clutch  and 
brake  linkage,  particularly  in  city  running,  where 
the  clutch  and  brake  are  in  constant  use.  Usually 
this  linkage  has  no  means  of  lubrication  other  than 
oil  holes,  into  which  a  drop  or  two  of  oil  only  may 
be  placed.  Naturally  it  will  not  last  long  and  oil 
should  be  dropped  in  the  holes  at  least  once  a  week. 

This  is  also  true  of  the  brake  linkage  on  the 
rear  axle.  Often  at  that  point  no  provision  what- 
ever is  made  for  oiling.  It  is  simply  a  matter  of 
flowing  oil  around  the  joint  and  letting  it  work  in. 
If  the  brake  linkage  wears  and  weakens  and  it 
becomes  necessary  to  apply  the  brake  with  extra 
force  in  an  emergency,  it  will  give  way. 


42       Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

The  spring  shackle  bolts  usually  are  equipped 
with  grease  cups  and  they  do  not  suffer  quite  as 
much  as  other  points,  but  often  the  passages 
become  clogged  and  one  may  screw  down  on  the 
cup  and  only  force  the  grease  out  of  the  thread  of 
the  cup,  instead  of  into  the  bearing,  for  the  grease- 
cup  cap  fits  loosely  upon  the  thread. 

Many  cars  come  from  the  factory  with  the 
grease  holes  clogged  with  enamel,  or  hardened 
grease,  so  that  no  great  amount  of  grease  could  be 
forced  through  in  turning  down  the  cap.  Cars 
are  allowed  to  run  so  long  sometimes  in  this 
condition  that  the  shackles  have  worn  through, 
allowing  the  body  to  drop  down  on  the  axle. 

Very  often  complaint  is  made  that  a  new  car 
will  develop  a  squeak  very  soon  after  it  is  tried 
out — an  elusive  sort  of  a  squeak  that  seems  to  be 
first  one  place  and  then  another.  The  owner 
who  has  this  experience  will  probably  find  upon 
examination  that  the  spring  shackles  have  not 
been  lubricated,  either  because  the  hole  was 
clogged,  or  for  some  other  reason.  It  is  recom- 
mended that  in  such  cases  the  car  be  jacked  up 
and  all  the  shackle  pins  be  driven  out  and  all  the 
grease  passages  inspected  and  cleaned  thoroughly ; 
also  that  heavy  grease  be  applied  directly  to  the 
bolt  when  it  is  put  back  in  place. 


Where  Lubrication  Is  Neglected       43 

This  will  take  a  little  time,  but  it  pays,  for  it  is  a 
matter  of  experience  that  if  the  pins  are  not  driven 
out  and  the  holes  opened  up  for  inspection  it  will 
take  a  solid  month  to  force  the  grease  through  by 
screwing  down  the  grease  cup,  and  until  this 
passage  is  open  there  can  be  no  lubrication  of  the 
joint. 

Wheel  bearings  ought  to  run  for  six  months  if 
properly  packed,  but  there  is  no  way  of  telling 
when  the  bearing  needs  attention  except  by  in- 
spection and  it  is  well  to  look  them  over  regularly. 
When  inspecting  the  rear-wheel  bearings,  if  the 
construction  is  of  the  type  where  the  wheel  hub  is 
keyed  on  to  the  shaft,  it  is  well  to  inspect  the  key 
to  determine  whether  it  is  tight.  Out  of  four  cars 
recently  inspected  three  were  found  with  a  loose 
key. 

There  are  two  dangers  when  the  key  is  loose. 
One  is  that  the  key  way  becomes  rocked  out  of 
shape  and  the  key  cannot  be  fitted  tight  again. 
The  other  is  that  shaft  and  hub  may  become  so 
worn  that  the  taper  is  destroyed  and  a  tight  fit  is 
made  impossible,  and  of  course  the  only  remedy  is 
to  replace  both.  This  condition  will  often  account 
for  a  knocking  or  rattling,  which  will  be  felt 
throughout  the  car  and  the  cause  often  be  supposed 
to  be  located  far  from  the  real  place.  For  instance, 


44       Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

in  one  case  the  driver  thought  the  knocking  was 
in  the  gear  case,  until  shown  the  loose  hub. 

The  spring  leaves  need  lubrication  once  a 
season.  Tools  are  sold  for  separating  the  leaves 
enough  to  apply  a  lubricant  made  especially  for 
that  purpose. 

Another  part  which  shows  hard  wear  quickly 
is  the  valve  push-rod  guide,  especially  in  overhead 
valve  construction  the  ones  on  the  forward  end  of 
the  motor.  Dust  blowing  over  the  radiator  collects 
on  these  forward  guides  and  wears  them  rapidly. 
This  condition  is  indicated  usually  when  the  crank 
case  becomes  covered  with  oil  blown  up  from  the 
loose  joint.  Modern  designs  have  taken  care  of 
this  to  a  large  extent  by  enclosing  the  push  rods  in 
a  casing,  and  many  owners  have  put  in  housings 
themselves  when  they  discovered  the  difficulty. 

Overhead  valves,  worked  by  a  rocker  arm,  must 
be  lubricated  every  time  the  car  is  taken  out.  The 
lubrication  is  not  included  in  the  ordinary  lubri- 
cation scheme  of  the  engine,  but  must  be  done 
separately. 

Careful  attention  to  these  minor  points  will 
result  in  greatly  lengthened  life  for  the  car,  and  in 
a  much  higher  value  when  it  is  traded  in  for  another 
car.  The  man  who  buys  a  used  car  would  better 
inspect  closely  along  these  lines  if  he  desires  to 


Where  Lubrication  Is  Neglected       45 

buy  something  better  than  a  bunch  of  junk.  The 
owner  should  not  trust  to  his  chauffeur  the  care 
of  these  parts,  unless  he  has  found  out  that  the 
man  knows  of  the  importance  of  lubrication,  nor 
should  it  be  taken  for  granted  that  the  garage 
man  is  attending  to  them.  Make  sure  yourself 
is  the  best  rule.  It  is  well  to  remember  that 
"many  a  mickle  makes  a  muckle"  in  wearing  of 
auto  parts,  and  look  after  the  little  things. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

SOMETIMES  THE  CAR  SMOKES 

THE  officer  will  get  you  if  you  don't  watch  out, 
if  you  leave  a  trail  of  smoke  behind  you;  then  it 
will  be: 

"Good  morning,  Jedge,  your  Honor." 

' '  Guilty  ?    Two  dollars,  please. ' ' 

"Cheap, "  you  say.  Yes,  if  it  were  only  the  two 
dollars;  but  there  is  the  time  lost  in  appearing  in 
court  and  then,  really,  you  know,  to  make  that 
smoke  you  were  burning  money. 

Such  smoke  comes  from  two  sources:  Burning 
too  much  gasoline  and  using  too  much  lubricating 
oil;  usually  the  latter.  Excessive  use  of  gasoline 
comes  from  faulty  carburetor  adjustment,  or 
poor  design  of  carburetor  or  intake  manifold,  or 
keeping  the  engine  cylinder  at  too  low  a  tempera- 
ture, because  of  the  water  being  too  cold  in  the 
cooling  system. 

In  the  latter  case  the  carburetor  may  vaporize 
the  gasoline  properly,  but  it  condenses  in  the 
46 


Sometimes  the  Car  Smokes  47 

cylinder  and  does  not  burn  well  and  the  part  which 
is  not  consumed  passes  off  as  black  smoke,  which 
issues  from  the  exhaust  pipe. 

We  must  have  a  certain  amount  of  oxygen  to 
consume  the  gasoline  entirely.  The  size  of  the 
cylinder  limits  the  amount  of  air  (from  which  the 
oxygen  is  taken)  which  may  be  taken  in  and  if 
the  carburetor  is  adjusted  to  feed  too  much 
gasoline,  there  may  not  be  enough  oxygen  pres- 
ent to  consume  it  all.  Practically  speaking,  what 
is  not  consumed  forms  carbon  or  smoke. 

The  obvious  remedy  is  to  adjust  the  carburetor 
so  that  no  more  gasoline  will  be  fed  to  the  engine 
than  is  required  for  running.  In  cold  weather  it 
is  necessary,  usually,  to  supply  heat  to  the  ingoing 
air  at  the  mixing  chamber  of  the  carburetor,  so 
that  the  vaporization  will  be  complete. 

A  light  blue  smoke  coming  from  the  exhaust 
pipe  indicates  too  much  lubricating  oil.  This 
may  be  due  to  feeding  too  much  oil  or  to  running 
the  engine  a  great  deal  with  the  throttle  nearly 
closed.  In  order  to  draw  a  charge  of  gas  into  the 
cylinder  the  piston  travels  partly  out  of  the  cylin- 
der and  forms  a  vacuum.  With  the  throttle  wide 
open  a  high  vacuum  is  not  obtained  because  a 
large  amount  of  gasoline  and  air  is  allowed  to 
come  in  and  fill  the  cylinder.  When  the  engine  is 


48       Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

throttled  down  by  closing  the  throttle,  the  air 
cannot  enter  in  such  a  large  quantity,  and  in 
consequence  there  is  a  decided  vacuum  in  the 
cylinder  on  each  intake  stroke  of  the  piston.  This 
vacuum  has  a  tendency  to  draw  oil  up  past  the 
piston  into  the  combustion  chamber,  where  it 
bums  and  forms  smoke.  This  is  why,  when  the 
machine  is  left  at  the  curb  with  the  engine  run- 
ning for  any  length  of  time,  it  will  often  be  found 
to  start  away  with  clouds  of  smoke  issuing  from 
the  exhaust. 

In  the  same  way,  when  the  engine  is  running 
slowly,  air  passes  through  the  carburetor  so  slowly 
that  the  gasoline  is  not  broken  up  into  very  fine 
particles,  consequently  it  does  not  fully  vaporize 
and  is  very  easily  condensed.  It  forms  liquid 
gasoline  in  the  intake  pipe  or  cylinder.  This  is 
called  "loading  up"  and  is  responsible  for  black 
smoke  when  the  machine  is  started. 

One  way  of  overcoming  this  is  to  supply  a  larger 
amount  of  heat  than  usual  to  the  mixing  chamber. 
Most  carburetors  are  not  designed  to  take  care  of 
this  condition  and  the  only  remedy  would  be  to 
stop  the  engine  instead  of  allowing  it  to  run  while 
standing  at  the  curb. 

To  overcome  smoke  from  the  oil  which  is 
drawn  up  past  the  piston,  it  is  customary  to  have 


Sometimes  the  Car  Smokes  49 

a  groove  turned  in  the  piston  under  the  lower 
piston  ring,  with  five  or  six  holes  drilled  in  the 
groove  through  the  piston.  The  piston  ring  then 
scrapes  the  oil  from  the  cylinder  wall  into  the 
groove  and  it  is  led  back  into  the  crank  case 
through  the  piston  walls.  This  prevents  it  from 
working  up  into  the  combustion  chamber.  Many 
manufacturers  have  this  scheme  on  the  very  new 
models  and  repair  men  are  using  it  on  older  models 
which  were  not  turned  out  with  it. 

Sometimes  the  oil  level  will  be  found  too  high. 
This  may  be  corrected  often  by  lowering  the  oil 
troughs,  or  by  filing  off  the  dip  on  the  bottom  of 
the  connecting  rod  so  that  it  touches  the  oil  with 
a  narrowed  surface. 

In  addition  to  the  smoke  resulting  from  too 
much  gasoline  or  oil  there  is  a  large  amount  of 
carbon  deposited  in  the  cylinder  which  takes  up 
space  in  the  combustion  chamber  and  raises  the 
compression  so  high  that  pre-ignition  occurs  and 
the  engine  knocks.  The  car  must  then  be  taken 
to  a  repair  shop  to  have  the  carbon  burned  or 
scraped  out.  This  is  expensive  work  and  besides 
the  car  is  laid  up  and  one  loses  its  use  while  the 
scraping  is  being  done.  The  owner  will  see  that 
he  has  been  spending  a  lot  of  money  to  supply 
gasoline  and  oil  that  he  didn't  need  to  use  just  to 


50       Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

make  smoke  and  carbon  and  expense  and  that  he 
has  lost  from  every  point  of  view. 

Smoke  should  not  be  confused  with  steam  which 
issues  from  the  exhaust  pipe  in  cold  weather. 
One  of  the  products  of  combustion  in  the  gas 
engine  is  water,  a  natural  result  of  the  breaking  up 
of  a  hydro-carbon.  This  usually  passes  off  at  a 
high  temperature  as  an  invisible  vapor.  In  cold 
weather  it  condenses  immediately  it  strikes  the  air 
and  is  visible  in  the  form  that  we  call  steam.  Really 
it  is  a  fog  that  we  create.  Therefore  do  not  let 
the  policeman  summons  you  for  having  a  smok- 
ing engine,  when  it  is  only  steam  issuing  from  the 
exhaust  pipe.  If  he  doesn't  know  which  it  is  you 
probably  can  convince  him,  by  the  color.  If  it  is 
white  it  is  steam,  if  it  is  black  it  is  gasoline  smoke, 
and  if  it  is  light  blue  it  is  the  smoke  from  the 
lubricating  oil.  Therefore  watch  your  exhaust  for 
there  are  many  eyes  watching  you  just  now  in 
parks  and  city  streets. 


CHAPTER  IX 

THE   CARBURETOR  AND  ITS  FAILINGS 

ONE  of  the  frequent  and  most  annoying  troubles 
to  which  automobile  engines  are  subject  has  to  do 
with  the  carburetor.  With  one  of  the  standard 
carburetors  or  vaporizers  which  is  properly  ad- 
justed there  should  be,  and  usually  is,  no  serious 
difficulty  in  ordinary  conditions,  but  if  there  is 
one  part  of  the  engine  which  seems  possessed  to 
kick  up  its  heels  it  is  the  carburetor.  Particularly 
is  this  so  in  the  frosty  months,  when  the  gasolne 
and  air  do  not  mix  properly  and  do  not  vaporize 
when  they  do  mix.  This  is  of  easy  solution, 
however.  Simply  warm  the  intake  a  few  minutes 
and  it  will  take  care  of  itself  thereafter. 

In  these  days  of  indifferent  gasoline  automobile 
drivers  are  complaining  constantly  that  the  car- 
buretors are  giving  unusual  troubles.  The  car- 
buretor is  the  lungs  of  the  engine.  Well,  did  you 
ever  breathe  in  a  crumb  of  cake  and  then  for  a 
while  have  all  your  faculties  suspend  operation 
51 


52       Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

while  the  lungs  sought  to  expel  the  intruding 
substance?  That  is  just  what  happens  when  you 
get  a  crumb  of  something  in  the  needle  valve,  or 
in  the  intake  valve  of  the  vaporizer.  One  little, 
good-for-nothing,  insignificant  speck  of  dirt,  so 
small  as  to  be  almost  invisible,  will  put  the  best 
carburetor  literally  out  of  business,  and  the  only 
thing  to  do  is  to  remove  the  speck. 

There  are  several  good  makes  of  gasoline 
strainers  which  reduce  this  trouble  to  a  minimum, 
provided  one  will  drain  off  the  strainer  occasion- 
ally to  let  the  dirt  run  off.  Straining  the  gasoline 
supply  through  wire  gauze  or  chamois  does  not 
obviate  the  difficulty,  for  gasoline  tanks  are 
prone  to  acquire  a  slight  sediment. 

A  few  drops  of  water  in  the  gasoline  which 
reaches  the  carburetor  will  make  trouble  likewise, 
for  it  will  not  vaporize,  and,  what  is  more,  it  will 
not  let  anything  else  vaporize.  Probably  no  one 
is  trying  to  dilute  the  gasoline  with  water  and  sell 
you  such  a  mixture,  but  there  are  some  mighty 
careless  men  in  the  gasoline  trade.  It  reminds  one 
of  the  farmer  caught  selling  watered  milk,  who 
pleaded  that  there  was  a  pump  in  the  milking 
yard  and  some  of  his  men  must  be  careless  in 
passing  by  it.  The  chamois  skin  will  remove  this 
impediment,  for  water  will  not  pass  through  it. 


The  Carburetor  and  Its  Failings       53 

Another  trouble  which  afflicts  motor-boat 
engines  more  than  the  automobile  motor  has  to  do 
with  the  weather.  The  motor-boat  carburetor 
requires  frequent  adjustment,  due  to  changes  of 
the  weather.  On  a  dry,  warm  day  the  gasoline 
vaporizes  easily  and  the  maximum  charge  is 
readily  exploded  in  the  cylinder,  giving  a  maximum 
of  power.  On  a  wet,  cold,  heavy  day,  one  must 
slightly  decrease  the  supply,  or  the  cylinders  will 
clog,  the  engine  will  knock,  and  one  will  think 
harsh  things  if  they  are  not  audibly  expressed. 
The  automobile  engine,  not  being  so  constantly 
over  the  water,  will  not  have  this  trouble  so  much, 
but  it  is  probable  that  most  drivers  fail  to  take 
this  into  consideration  and  perhaps  do  not  know 
that  it  is  a  cause  of  trouble. 

A  very  slight  leak  in  the  intake  manifold  gaskets 
likewise  makes  all  sorts  of  trouble,  since  the  supply 
of  mixture  to  the  cylinders  will  vary  according  as 
the  vibration  opens  up  the  gasket  and  stops  the 
suction  by  which  the  cylinders  are  supplied.  A 
leaky  piston  ring  will  do  this  for  one  of  the  cylin- 
ders. If  worn,  or  frozen  fast  by  carbon,  it  will  fail 
to  keep  the  piston  tight,  the  mixture  passes  by  the 
leak,  if  sucked  in,  and  there  is  no  compression  and 
no  explosion  or  irregular  firing.  This  will  make 
one  think  sometimes  that  the  carburetor  is  at 


54       Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

fault,  whereas  the  engine  really  needs  an  over- 
hauling. 

In  fact,  if  one  is  having  engine  trouble  which  is 
hard  to  diagnose,  one  should  try  out  the  piston 
rings  to  see  if  they  are  doing  their  duty.  This  is 
very  simple,  for  all  practical-test  needs.  Crank 
the  cylinder  up  to  high  pressure  and  let  it  stand  a 
couple  of  minutes.  Then  open  pet  or  priming  cock 
and  see  if  there  is  any  pressure  left.  On  the  two- 
cycle  engine  this  is  a  good  test,  and  by  trying  the 
cylinders  in  turn  piston  ring  trouble  may  be 
located. 

On  the  four-cycle  engine  the  valves  must  be 
considered  also,  for  they  may  leak  and  the  pistons 
be  perfectly  tight,  but  in  such  an  event  it  will  be 
found  almost  impossible  to  get  good  pressure  on 
the  cylinder,  since  it  leaks  through  the  valves  while 
the  piston  is  making  the  compression  stroke. 
Don't  condemn  the  carburetor  until  you  have 
determined  whether  either  of  these  things  is 
occurring. 

The  carburetor  should  be  drained  occasionally 
to  prevent  the  accumulation  of  sediment,  which 
will  later  clog  the  needle  valve,  and  at  least  once 
a  season  should  be  taken  apart  and  cleaned. 
Time  spent  in  this  way  well  repays  the  owner. 

In  all  that  has  been  said  thus  far  ro  account  has 


The  Carburetor  and  Its  Failings       55 

been  taken  of  poor  gasoline.  By  this  is  not  meant 
gasoline  with  water  or  dirt  in  it,  but  a  poor 
quality.  Nowadays  there  is  such  a  demand  for 
gasoline  for  automobiles  and  motor  boats,  that 
the  producers  have  had  to  market  much  of  a  low 
grade,  or,  as  is  generally  the  case,  have  mixed  the 
first  quality  with  the  cheaper  grades,  producing 
a  medium  quality. 

The  seeming  necessity  of  utilizing  these  low 
grades  of  gasoline  makes  it  necessary  to  change  the 
carburetor  forms,  and  one  sees  now  a  tendency  to 
do  away  with  the  old,  long  intake,  either  by  raising 
the  carburetor  to  the  cylinder  level,  with  a  hori- 
zontal intake  only,  or  with  an  internal  intake 
manifold,  the  carburetor  being  attached  to  the 
cylinder  block.  Several  makes  of  carburetors 
using  one  of  these  methods  are  said  to  vaporize 
even  the  low  grades  of  gasoline,  while  some  later 
models  are  claimed  to  handle  kerosene  successfully. 

For  the  motor  boat  there  are  several  makes  of 
vaporizers  which  will  handle  either  gasoline  or 
kerosene,  and  all  intermediate  grades,  by  slight 
adjustment.  It  is  possible  that  some  ingenious 
builder  will  devise  a  similar  vaporizer  for  the 
automobile  engine,  if  gasoline  continues  to  de- 
cline in  quality,  and  to  be  short  in  supply  as  well. 

An  easy  test  to  see  whether  the  carburetor  is 


56       Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

working  right  is  to  run  several  blocks  with  the 
throttle  practically  closed,  then,  when  the  road  is 
clear,  press  sharply  upon  the  accelerator  pedal, 
which  opens  the  throttle  wide  and  should  make 
the  engine  speed  up  and  the  car  jump  forward. 
If  it  is  sluggish  it  will  denote  a  too  rich  mixture, 
and  if  it  sputters  and  perhaps  backfires,  it  is  too 
lean.  But  if,  with  smooth  yet  rapid  action,  it 
makes  the  car  speed  up,  that  is  "pep."  The 
amount  of  pep  which  a  car  is  said  to  possess  is 
gauged  by  the  quickness  with  which  it  responds 
to  the  acceleration,  either  by  the  pedal  or  by 
throttle  lever,  changing  the  car  from  slow  or 
moderate  speed  to  full  speed.  That,  too,  without 
jerky  action  or  tearing  the  motor  apart. 

While  this  test,  showing  the  presence  of  pep, 
will  denote  that  the  mixture  passing  through  the 
carburetor  is  correct,  absence  of  pep  does  not 
always  mean  that  it  is  wrong.  Therefore  it  is 
not  wise  to  jump  to  the  conclusion  that  the  adjust- 
ment is  wrong.  In  fact  the  adjustment  should  not 
be  changed  unless  it  is  fully  certain  that  it  is 
wrong.  If  the  car  has  been  running  with  the 
carburetor  working  properly  and  no  one  has 
changed  the  adjustment,  it  may  safely  be  assumed 
that  the  carburetor  adjustment  is  correct.  Adjust- 
ments are  not  changed  except  by  someone's  fingers. 


The  Carburetor  and  Its  Failings       57 

Do  not  be  like  the  new  chauffeur  who,  having 
trouble,  at  once  descended  upon  the  carburetor. 
Another  chauffeur  whose  car  was  standing  near 
advised : 

"I  wouldn't  touch  that,  boss." 

"Well,  there's  something  the  matter  and  I 
guess  it's  here, "  said  the  troubled  one. 

"I  wouldn't  touch  it,  boss;  try  somewhere  else." 

"Oh;  let's  see  what's  on  the  inside  of  it,"  im- 
patiently exclaimed  the  new  chauffeur,  and  he 
proceeded  to  unscrew  and  unbolt  the  parts. 

Of  course,  he  had  to  send  to  the  garage  for  a 
repair  man  and  finally  was  towed  in  for  complete 
reassembly  and  reajustment  of  the  part. 

The  lesson  in  all  this  for  the  owner  is  that  he 
should  learn  the  make-up  and  peculiarities  of  his 
carburetor,  understand  its  common  and  uncom- 
mon ills  and  thus  be  able  to  remedy  a  trouble 
which  would  mar  a  trip  or  the  general  service- 
ability of  the  car.  It  is  unnecessary  to  go  into  the 
detail  of  any  make  of  carburetor,  because  if  the 
manufacturer's  instruction  book  does  not  contain 
full  information  and  sketches  of  the  make  used, 
a  special  carburetor  book  may  be  obtained  from 
the  maker.  But  there  is  no  excuse  for  failure  to 
master  the  lungs  of  the  engine  and  to  learn  how 
to  keep  them  breathing  properly. 


CHAPTER  X 

GETTING  THE  MOST  OUT  OF  A  GALLON  OF  GAS 

WITH  the  price  of  gasoline  constantly  mounting 
skyward  and  tires  following  when  not  leading  the 
rise,  while  everything  else  needed  for  automobile 
upkeep  is  ascendant,  it  is  timely  to  assert  the  need 
that  the  owner  consider  his  expense  and  renewal 
costs.  And  when  it  is  considered  that  labor  and 
repair  parts  have  pirouetted  along  with  the  other 
things,  it  behooves  the  owner  to  devise  ways  of 
decreasing  his  running  expenses  and  to  learn  how 
to  get  as  much  as  possible  out  of  a  gallon  of  gas, 
and  every  mile  out  of  his  tires  they  can  be  coaxed 
to  give. 

There  are  many  little  expenses  about  running  a 
car  which  total  a  considerable  sum.  A  nickel,  a 
dime,  a  quarter,  a  dollar,  do  not  seem  much  at  the 
time,  but  they  pile  up  the  cost  per  mile  fright- 
fully. Not  everyone  can  be  like  a  friend,  who, 
when  cautioned  about  the  way  his  chaufbur  was 
running  up  the  cost  of  his  several  cars,  replied : 
58 


Getting  the  Most  Out  of  a  Gallon  of  Gas  59 

"I  don't  want  to  know  what  my  cars  cost.  If 
I  did,  my  business  instinct  would  doubtless  make 
me  dispose  of  them  all,  and  I  do  not  want  to  do 
this.  The  cars  are  a  luxury  and  I  don't  want  to 
know  what  they  cost." 

A  car  which  lasts  with  ordinary  care  one  or 
two  years,  if  given  intelligent  care  by  the  owner 
might  be  made  to  last  three  to  five  years.  This 
means  taking  unusual  precaution  and  having  a 
thorough  knowledge  of  the  working  parts  and  of 
how  to  keep  them  in  condition,  and  it  means 
doing  faithfully  and  persistently  the  things  neces- 
sary to  keep  everything  in  order. 

When  it  is  considered  that  under  prevailing 
conditions  it  may  not  be  possible  to  get  a  new  car 
as  often  as  it  has  been  in  the  past,  it  might  be  as 
well  to  take  care  of  the  cars  we  have  rather  than 
let  them  go  to  rack  and  ruin  for  lack  of  care. 
A  good  many  automobiles  are  wasted  more  than 
they  are  used.  In  some  cases  this  is  due  to  care- 
lessness and  in  others  by  lack  of  knowledge  of 
what  to  do  and  how  to  do  it. 

Take  tires,  for  instance.  The  cost  due  to  neglect 
is  often  greater  than  the  cost  of  actual  wear. 
Some  of  the  things  which  cause  excessive  wear  and 
deterioriation  of  tires  are  driving  into  holes  in  the 
street,  or  in  deep  ruts,  turning  corners  at  too  high 


60       Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

speed,  stopping  the  car  so  quickly  with  the  brake 
that  the  wheels  slide  on  the  pavement,  and  a  harsh 
clutch  which  :erks  the  car  suddenly  from  a  stand- 
still, causing  needless  wear.  Then  there  are  such 
things  as  letting  the  front  wheels  get  out  of  align- 
ment so  that  they  do  not  run  parallel,  or  nearly  so, 
the  action  being  that  the  tire  is  slid,  instead  of 
being  rolled,  over  the  road.  There  should  be  a 
slight  toe  in,  for  mechanical  reasons,  as  explained 
elsewhere,  but  if  this  is  allowed  to  go  beyond  the 
proper  limit  it  costs  money. 

Adjusters  tell  us  that  a  very  large  percentage  of 
tire  failures  is  caused  by  under-inflation,  which 
allows  the  tires  to  flatten  and  breaks  the  side 
walls.  Every  tire  should  be  tested  with  a  gauge 
and  not  with  the  eye  or  hand  and  kept  to  the 
pressure  named  by  the  tire  maker. 

To  get  the  greatest  life  out  of  a  tire  it  should  be 
watched  continually  for  small  cuts  through  the 
rubber  to  the  fabric.  Most  tires  will  be  found 
after  a  short  service  to  have  from  two  to  a  dozen 
such  cuts.  These  will  allow  sand  to  work  in  and 
loosen  the  rubber  and  then  moisture  gets  in  and 
rots  the  fabric.  There  are  preparations  with  which 
these  cuts  may  be  healed  in  a  few  minutes ;  serious 
cuts,  especially  where  the  rubber  is  loosened  from  the 
fabric,  should  be  taken  at  once  to  the  vulcanizer. 


Getting  the  Most  Out  of  a  Gallon  of  Gas  61 

While  oil  and  grease  of  good  quality  cost  money, 
their  proper  use  will  save  many  times  their  price 
in  replacement  of  parts.  On  the  other  hand,  a 
waste  of  lubricant  makes  unnecessary  expense. 
Especially  with  a  new  car,  oil  and  grease  should  be 
carefully  watched  until  the  bearings  have  had 
time  to  work  in.  That  is  the  time  when  expense 
for  replacement  of  bearings  is  most  likely. 

It  is  not  generally  realized  that  a  large  number 
of  things  enter  into  the  economical  use  of  gasoline. 
To  get  the  most  out  of  a  gallon  of  gasoline  all 
moving  parts  must  work  properly.  This  means 
proper  lubrication.  The  brakes  should  not  drag; 
each  cylinder  of  the  engine  should  fire  properly ;  the 
clutch  should  not  slip,  and  the  carburetor  should 
be  in  proper  adjustment.  It  is  not  well  to  adjust 
the  carburetor  unless  you  are  sure  it  is  at  fault. 
Excessive  carbon  in  the  cylinder  causes  a  decided 
loss  of  power,  due  to  back  pressure  on  the  piston, 
and  the  partial  clogging  of  the  muffler  indirectly 
consumes  extra  gasoline.  The  importance  of  keep- 
ing the  muffler  free  is  not  usually  understood. 

To  insure  each  cylinder  getting  its  proper  power 
without  waste,  the  engine  should  be  driven  with 
the  spark  lever  advanced  as  far  as  possible  with- 
out causing  back  pressure.  The  spark-plug  gaps 
should  be  properly  adjusted  to  insure  a  thorough 


62       Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

ignition  of  the  charge;  the  spark  plugs  should  be 
kept  clean  to  prevent  the  loss  of  a  charge  of  gas 
through  non-ignition,  likewise  the  interrupter 
points,  and  the  distributor  should  be  kept  clean 
and  properly  adjusted. 

To  use  all  the  gas  that  is  taken  into  the  cylinder 
there  should  be  no  loss  of  compression  through 
leaky  valves,  or  weak  valve  springs,  or  poor  gaskets 
on  spark  plugs  or  valve  caps;  and  it  is  equally 
important  that  pet  cocks,  cylinder  head,  where 
there  is  one,  and  piston  rings  are  tight,  so  that  gas 
will  not  be  wasted. 

It  is  not  safe  to  leave  these  things  to  the  chauf- 
feur and  the  garage  man.  The  owner  should 
learn  himself  how  to  make  all  these  adjustments. 
If  he  does  so  he  will  find  that  his  propelling 
machine  will  work  better,  and  that  he  will  not 
only  have  more  use  and  pleasure  out  of  it,  but  he 
will  save  a  very  appreciable  part  of  the  cost  of 
up-keep. 


CHAPTER  XI 


THINGS   WHICH   MAKE   GAS    BILLS   HIGH 

THERE  are  other  things  which  affect  the  amount 
of  gas  consumed  which  need  the  attention  of  the 
automobile  owner.  One  of  the  common  things, 
mentioned  in  the  preceding  chapter,  concerns  the 
intake  manifold,  which  has  to  do  with  the  distribu- 
tion of  the  gas  mixture  from  the  carburetor  to  the 
several  cylinders.  A  leak  at  the  carburetor  side 
would  prevent  drawing  into  the  manifold  a  suf- 
ficient supply  of  the  mixture,  so  that  the  cylinders 
would  be  scantily  supplied — perhaps  one  or  more 
not  supplied  at  all.  Likewise  air  would  be  drawn 
into  the  manifold  through  the  leak,  and  this  would 
thin  the  mixture  coming  from  the  carburetor.  As 
the  mixture  in  the  cylinders  would  be  thin  it  would 
not  compress  properly,  the  firing  pressure  would 
be  poor,  the  mixture  would  fire  badly  or  not  at  all, 
and  the  power  would  be  lessened. 

The  natural  thing  to  do  when  the  misfiring  is 
noticed  is  to  open  the  spray  or  needle  valve,  ad- 
63 


64       Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

mitting  more  gasoline  to  the  mixing  chamber  and 
making  a  higher  consumption  with  no  gain  in 
power.  The  proper  thing  to  do,  however,  is  to 
look  for  a  leak  in  the  manifold. 

If  the  leak  is  on  the  cylinder  side  of  the  manifold, 
it  might  be  at  one  or  all  of  the  cylinders.  The 
result  would  be  the  same  as  in  the  case  just  cited, 
a  poor  supply  of  the  mixture,  or  some  of  the  cylin- 
ders might  be  properly  supplied  and  work  all  right, 
while  others  might  be  short  of  the  mixture  and 
might  not  fire  at  all.  The  loss  might  be  sufficient 
to  affect  seriously  the  power  and  lessen  the  speed 
of  the  car. 

The  manifold  ought  not  to  become  loosened  in 
the  ordinary  use  of  the  car.  There  have  been 
cases  where  vibration  has  done  it,  but  the  usual 
trouble  is  where  the  manifold  has  been  removed 
for  some  purpose  and  improperly  replaced.  Cop- 
per and  asbestos  gaskets  ordinarily  are  used,  and 
these  may  be  dented  or  jammed  out  of  shape  so 
that  the  joint  is  not  tight,  or  there  might  have  been 
no  shellac  handy,  or  the  bolts  may  not  have  been 
tightened  enough.  Whatever  the  reason,  the  leak 
makes  a  weak  mixture,  and  the  first  thought  of 
the  chauffeur  or  the  average  garage  man  is  to 
increase  the  gasoline  at  the  spray  nozzle  of  the 
carburetor  to  make  the  mixture  of  the  right  pro- 


Things  Which  Make  Gas  Bills  High   65 

portion  to  fire.  On  account  of  the  mixture  being 
made  in  the  intake  manifold,  instead  of  the  car- 
buretor, as  it  should  be,  the  work  is  not  efficiently 
done  and  gasoline  is  wasted,  the  result  being  the 
increase  of  the  expense  account. 

One  of  the  most  common  causes  of  gas  loss  is 
from  leaky  supply  pipes.  Where  there  is  a  solid 
pipe  from  tank  to  carburetor  the  only  leak,  barring 
a  break  or  perforation  of  the  pipe,  would  be  at  the 
connection  with  the  tank  or  the  carburetor.  Vi- 
bration might  cause  the  joints  to  loosen,  though  if 
they  are  put  together  properly  with  shellac,  soap 
or  some  equivalent,  and  are  thoroughly  tightened, 
there  ought  not  to  be  any  loosening.  It  is  need- 
less, but  how  often  we  see  a  car  dripping  gasoline 
at  considerable  loss.  It  is  also  dangerous,  for  a 
stray  flame  or  spark  may  ignite  the  gas. 

There  is  another  leak  of  the  same  nature  which 
is  quite  as  expensive,  and  that  is  of  lubricating  oil. 
If  you  do  not  believe  it  to  be  prevalent  or  serious  in 
extent,  you  have  only  to  watch  places  where  auto- 
mobiles stand  frequently  along  the  curb  and  notice 
the  pools  of  oil  on  the  pavement.  These  come 
from  leaky  crank  cases,  transmission  gear  cases, 
rear-axle  gear  (differential)  cases,  or  from  a  faulty 
distributor.  In  most  cases  it  is  only  a  matter  of 
tightening  a  few  bolts  or  connections  occasionally ; 


66       Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

but  with  oil  at  present  prices  it  is  a  serious 
matter. 

Another  leak  which  needs  to  be  corrected  fre- 
quently is  at  the  valves.  So  much  has  been 
written  about  the  care  of  valves  that  it  would 
seem  superfluous  to  refer  to  it,  but  regrinding  and 
proper  care  pay  big  dividends  in  efficiency  and 
should  be  on  the  regular  program.  There  is  a 
leak  at  the  valve,  however,  seldom  mentioned, 
though  quite  as  serious  as  the  others,  which  is  due 
to  worn  valve  stems. 

The  valve  stems  should  fit  snugly  in  the  guides ; 
if  they  do  not,  air  will  be  drawn  past  the  stem 
into  the  cylinder  on  the  suction  stroke  and  thin 
down  the  mixture  so  that  the  engine  runs  irregularly, 
unless  more  gasoline  is  supplied  at  the  spray  nozzle, 
and  throttling  down  to  a  reasonable  idling  speed 
is  impossible.  If  the  exhaust  valve  guide  is  worn 
there  will  be  a  hissing  sound  that  is  objectionable. 

The  purpose  of  repeating  this  caution  as  to 
mixture  thinning  is  to  make  it  plain  that  wherever 
there  is  a  leak  between  the  carburetor  and  the 
cylinder  it  lets  in  air  and  thins  the  mixture  so  that 
it  is  necessary  to  feed  in  more  gasoline  to  get  a 
mixture  that  will  fire  and  that  is  wasteful,,  for  a 
mixture  made  anywhere  else  than  in  the  carburetor 
is  less  efficiently  accomplished. 


Things  Which  Make  Gas  Bills  High  67 

The  burned  gases  pass  out  through  the  exhaust 
valve  side  and  in  so  doing  often  deposit  small 
pieces  of  carbon,  which  keep  the  valve  from  seating 
properly  and  let  perfectly  good  mixture  escape. 
If  not  cleaned  often,  the  heat  and  constant  tapping 
of  the  valve  against  the  seat  will  hammer  the  car- 
bon fast  to  the  valve  or  seat  as  though  it  had 
been  fused  there.  Carbon  must  be  scraped  off  fre- 
quently and  as  often  as  necessary  the  valve 
should  be  reground  into  the  seat. 

Piston  rings  which  are  not  pinned  often  work 
around  until  the  slots  are  in  line  and  the  mixture 
will  blow  through.  If  the  rings  will  not  stay  in 
place  a  pin  should  be  put  in  the  ring  groove  on  the 
piston  to  prevent  the  ring  from  working  around 
and  the  slots  should  be  staggered,  so  that  no  two 
are  in  line.  Naturally  the  rings  must  be  kept  free 
from  carbon  or  gum  from  the  oil  or  they  will  freeze 
to  the  groove  and  leak  mixture. 

In  older  cars  the  cylinder  may  be  worn  oval,  so 
that  the  piston  and  its  rings  do  not  fit.  When  the 
cylinder  is  oval  the  piston  will  not  pump  in  the 
mixture  properly,  and  when  the  explosion  occurs 
much  of  the  burned  gas  will  be  forced  down  into 
the  crank  case.  One  of  the  products  of  combustion 
is  water,  which  is  exhausted  in  the  form  of  vapor. 
When  it  gets  into  the  crank  case  and  condenses, 


68       Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

forming  water,  it  collects  under  the  oil.  In  clean- 
ing out  and  replacing  the  oil,  if  water  is  found,  it 
always  indicates  a  tendency  to  oval  in  the  cylinder. 
This  is  caused  by  the  thrust  of  the  connecting  rod 
being  against  one  side  on  the  up  stroke  and  against 
the  other  on  the  down  stroke. 

With  everything  else  there  may  be  a  loss  of  gaso- 
line by  reason  of  poor  adjustment  of  the  carbure- 
tor. The  adjustment  should  be  such  as  to  make 
the  mixture  as  lean  as  possible  and  have  it  fire 
readily,  and  to  have  the  float  not  too  high.  One 
sure  indication  that  the  mixture  is  too  rich  is 
when  black  smoke  is  given  off.  Black  smoke  al- 
ways indicates  excess  gasoline — burning  money. 
As  has  been  told  in  another  chapter,  there  is 
another  kind  of  smoke  to  guard  against,  but  if  the 
owner  will  make  sure  that  he  is  not  exhausting 
black  smoke  he  need  not  worry  about  the  price 
of  gasoline,  and  a  little  judgment  and  care  will 
eliminate  many  of  the  items  of  upkeep  expense. 


CHAPTER  XII 

CARE   OF  THE  TIRES 

WHEN  a  tire  buyer  is  told  by  the  dealer  that  a 
tire  is  guaranteed  for  so  many  miles,  the  manu- 
facturer expects  to  make  good — he  expects  if  the 
tire  falls  down  on  performance  to  replace  it,  or  at 
least  make  an  allowance  for  the  mileage  short. 
As  a  matter  of  fact  they  do  not  have  to  do  this  on 
thousands  of  tires  which  are  defective,  for  the 
reason  that  the  auto  owner  has  not  kept  his  part  of 
the  bargain.  Nine  times  out  of  ten  this  is  because 
the  user  of  the  tire  does  not  know  how  it  ought  to 
be  treated  and  doctored  and  cajoled  into  doing  all 
that  it  is  expected  to  do. 

Tires  are  a  great  deal  like  human  beings ;  are  just 
as  finicky  and  contrary ;  and  it  takes  a  great  insight 
into  their  make-up  if  one  would  get  the  most  out 
of  them. 

One  of  the  chief  causes  of  tire  deterioration  is 
lack  of  care — absolute  neglect.  Drivers  send  their 
machines  over  all  kinds  of  roads,  regardless  of  ruts, 
69 


70       Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

and  stones,  and  glass  or  junk  in  the  roadway,  and 
then  cannot  understand  why  the  tires  are  all  cut 
up  about  it.  Worse  than  that,  they  do  not  seem 
to  understand  that  a  cut  tire  needs  as  much  and 
as  prompt  attention  as  a  cut  finger — perhaps  more, 
for  nature  will  mend  the  one;  the  other  has  no 
such  luck. 

The  first  thing  to  do  when  one  discovers  a  cut  is 
to  clean  it  out  and  jiffy  in  one  of  the  good  solutions 
sold,  which  will  cement  the  edges  together  or  press 
in  the  putty -like  repair  material.  If  the  cut  is  not 
too  large  or  too  deep  it  will  mend  easily  and  give 
little  trouble,  if  care  is  taken.  If  it  is  a  large  cut 
the  vulcanizer  should  be  visited.  The  cement 
should  hold  long  enough  for  that.  It  will  keep  out 
water,  which  rots  the  fabric  easily,  and  sand,  which 
makes  blisters  along  the  tread.  Only  a  slight 
patch  is  needed  if  done  promptly,  but  if  water  and 
sand  get  in  it  is  almost  impossible  to  vulcanize  in 
a  patch,  and  when  it  is  done  it  probably  will  not 
last. 

Tires  should  be  inspected  regularly  and  often 
and  attended  to  intelligently.  This  will  save  the 
automobile  owner  much  annoyance  and  cut  down 
one  of  the  big  items  of  maintenance. 

Some  drivers,  too,  never  seem  to  think  of  favor- 
ing an  auto  tire  at  times  of  greatest  strain.  They 


Care  of  the  Tkes  71 

will  whirl  around  a  corner  as  fast  as  their  nerve 
and  the  traffic  policeman  will  allow  and  then 
wonder  why  it  is  that  the  tread  wears  away  so 
quickly.  They  do  not  seem  to  understand  that 
under  such  circumstances  there  is  a  steady 
grind  of  tire  upon  pavement,  and  grind  means 
wear. 

Another  set  of  drivers  will  run  along  for  weeks 
without  noticing  that  the  steering  gear  is  out  of 
true.  Perhaps  the  machine  has  hit  something  and 
the  equalizing  rod  is  bent  just  a  trifle,  making  the 
front  wheels  far  from  parallel.  It  may  not  be 
enough  to  see  with  the  eye,  but  it  is  off  true  and  one 
or  both  of  the  tires  grinds  with  every  revolution. 
The  speed  with  which  the  tread  will  wear  away 
depends  upon  the  character  of  the  roadway.  On 
gravel  or  macadam  roads  it  is  fast.  The  manu- 
facturer will  not  replace  a  tire  worn  out  that  way 
if  he  can  detect  the  cause,  and  experience  has 
taught  him  where  to  look  for  it.  One  man  wore  a 
pair  of  front  tires  through  to  the  fabric  in  a  very 
short  run  and  raised  a  fuss  because  the  replacement 
man  disclaimed  reponsibility  after  testing  the 
wheels.  The  roll  and  slide  motion  combined 
will  work  havoc  with  the  best  tire  and  should  be 
corrected. 

A  harsh  clutch  does  the  same  thing  in  a  little 


72       Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

different  way.  A  clutch  which  grips  too  hard  will 
cause  the  wheels  to  slide  and  wear.  The  brake, 
also,  should  not  be  too  positive,  but  be  adjusted 
to  work  easily,  so  that  the  wheel  will  stop  turning 
just  as  the  momentum  is  spent,  to  prevent  sliding. 
Both  brakes  should  be  adjusted  alike,  or  one  will 
grip  the  wheel  fast  and  the  other  turn.  The 
gripped  tire  will  scrape  along  and  the  pavement 
cuts  the  tire  like  a  rasp. 

Another  set  of  men  forgets  that  oil  and  grease 
and  gasoline  are  the  natural  enemies  of  tires.  They 
allow  the  machine  to  stand  in  the  garage  where 
there  are  pools  of  oil  or  gas.  Gasoline  will  dis- 
solve gum  rubber.  It  will  disintegrate  the  tire, 
which  is  a  combination  of  rubber,  soapstone,  and 
other  things,  so  that  it  wears  out  quickly.  Lubri- 
cating oil  and  grease  hasten  the  decay  of  rubber  and 
shorten  the  life  of  the  tire.  Besides  there  is  no 
sense  in  wasting  oil  and  gas,  and  if  someone  else 
allows  it  to  spill  on  the  pavement  the  wise  man 
will  keep  out  of  the  mess. 

In  wet  seasons  there  is  especial  need  for  care  of 
the  tire.  Rubber  cuts  easily  when  the  sharp  edge 
of  the  cutting  agent  is  wet.  Tire  workers  dip 
their  knives  in  water  to  facilitate  the  work.  Go 
out  on  a  road  where  there  is  glass,  or  sharp  stones 
dripping  from  a  rain,  and  the  tire  is  an  easy  mark. 


Care  of  the  Tires  73 

A  wet  day  on  a  sharp  gravel  road  will  fill  the  tires 
full  of  small  cuts. 

Tubes  should  be  kept  in  the  shoes  where  possible. 
If  folded  up  they  are  likely  to  harden  on  the  creases 
and  crack  on  the  surface,  blowing  out  easily. 
Tubes  in  excess  of  shoes  carried  should  be  rolled  up 
carefully  and  be  kept  in  a  bag  to  prevent  chafing 
on  tools  or  box. 

Tires  cost  the  owner  about  the  same  as  the  car 
if  he  does  much  running.  In  a  general  sense  the 
set  of  four  tires  used  on  any  car  bears  a  certain 
proportion  to  the  selling  price  of  the  car.  On  the 
cheaper  makes  of  cars  the  tires  cost  new  approxi- 
mately $60  per  set.  They  increase  in  price  in 
direct  ratio  to  the  price  of  the  car.  They  are  usu- 
ally guaranteed  for  five  thousand  miles,  and  as  the 
average  owner  makes  at  least  ten  thousand  miles 
per  year,  he  uses  up  two  sets  of  tires.  Taking  three 
years  as  the  average  time  the  owner  will  keep  the 
car  before  trading  it  in,  would  mean  six  sets  of  tires. 
Taking  the  car  which  uses  the  $60  set  and  we  find 
that  six  sets  of  tires  would  cost  $360,  or  pretty  near 
the  first  cost  of  the  car.  Few  owners  give  consid- 
eration to  this  fact. 

Another  way  of  figuring  the  cost  of  tires  is  that 
in  upkeep  expense  tires  figure  for  one-third  of  the 
total,  gasoline  and  oil  for  another  third,  and  wear 


74       Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

and  tear  on  the  car  the  remainder.  Upon  this 
basis  the  owner  should  give  one-third  of  the  total 
care  to  the  tires.  But  few,  if  any,  do. 

When  the  car  is  stored  for  the  winter,  or  for  any 
length  of  time  at  any  other  season,  the  car  should 
be  jacked  up  and  the  tires  deflated  until  the  pres- 
sure is  less  than  half  the  normal.  Where  the  car 
cannot  be  left  jacked  up  the  tires  should  be  removed 
from  the  car  and  hung  up  high  and  dry  where 
there  will  be  neither  extremes  of  heat  nor  cold, 
though  heat  is  more  injurious  than  cold. 

It  is  good  practice,  if,  on  coming  to  the  garage, 
it  is  found  that  one  or  more  tires  are  deflated  be- 
low normal  and  there  is  no  time  to  pump  them  up, 
to  lift  the  weight  off  the  tire  with  jack  or  otherwise, 
so  that  the  strain  will  be  removed  from  the  walls 
of  the  tire  between  the  rim  and  the  floor  or  ground. 

Do  not  put  tires  where  they  will  be  subject  to 
strong  sunlight,  which  decomposes  the  rubber. 
Oil  and  grease  left  on  the  surface  do  the  same  thing. 
Clean  the  tires  of  mud  and  grease  after  every  trip. 
Keep  the  small  cuts  healed  and  the  big  blisters 
will  not  occur. 

Make  friends  with  the  vulcanizer  and  take  his 
advice  as  to  repair  of  your  tires.  That's  his  busi- 
ness. If  too  far  from  a  vulcanizer,  buy  a  small  out- 
fit and  spoil  a  few  casings  and  tubes  learning  how 


Care  of  the  Tires  75 

to  do  the  small  jobs,  and  send  the  big  ones  to  the 
shop  by  express. 

Remember  in  mending  tubes  and  casings  that 
cleanliness  is  before  godliness.  You  may  be  a 
perfect  church  member,  but  if  you  do  not  observe 
perfect  cleanliness  the  mend  will  not  stick  and  in 
the  end  may  lose  you  your  church  membership 
by  provoking  you  to  violent  words. 

Throw  away  the  valve  insides  every  once  in  a 
while  on  general  principles  and  put  in  new  ones. 
Learn  how  to  test  the  tubes  by  dipping  them  under 
water  when  inflated  and  looking  for  air  bubbles. 
Test  the  valve  the  same  way,  at  the  same  time. 
Bubbles  may  indicate  why  the  tire  will  not  keep 
pumped  hard. 

Rubber  is  porous  to  a  slight  degree  and  you  must 
expect  loss  of  air  from  that  cause  both  in  the 
tires  on  the  wheels  and  that  held  in  reserve.  Make 
sure  of  the  pressure  by  the  tire  gauge. 


CHAPTER  XIII 

SKIDDING  MAY   BE  MINIMIZED 

WHEN  you  are  out  driving  next  time  watch  the 
cars  ahead  of  you  and  notice  how  many  of  them 
have  wobbly  rear  wheels.  You  can  by  this  means 
tell  fairly  well  who  is  a  careful  driver  and  whose 
car  has  been  skidding  about  the  streets  and  has 
brought  up  sharply  against  the  curb,  or  car  track, 
or  rut,  or  some  other  obstruction  over  which  the 
wheels  would  not  slide,  and  which  was  sufficiently 
solid  to  give  them  a  hard  knock. 

No  man  can  appreciate  what  a  skid  means  until 
he  has  had  one  and  then,  perhaps,  he  will  not 
live  to  appreciate  it.  No  amount  of  preaching 
seems  to  do  any  good.  He  must  sow  his  wild  auto- 
driving  oats  and  learn  from  experience.  Because 
of  this,  it  is  recommended  that  each  driver  who  has 
not  had  a  real  skid  yet,  pick  out  a  very  broad  and 
wet  street  paved  with  asphalt  where  there  is  no 
traffic  in  sight.  Let  him  drive  the  car  fifteen  miles 
an  hour  up  the  middle  of  the  street,  then  give  the 
76 


Skidding  May  Be  Minimized         77 

steering  wheel  a  sharp  turn  to  the  left,  at  the  same 
time  applying  the  brakes.  The  resulting  sensation 
of  absolute  helplessness  will  be  remembered  for  an 
hour  or  two — at  least.  For  those  who  wish  to 
continue  the  lesson,  try  allowing  some  other  driver 
to  repeat  the  operation,  while  the  experience  seeker 
occupies  the  back  seat. 

Now  the  skid  against  the  curb  or  other  obstruc- 
tion may  not  have  demolished  the  wheel,  but  it 
left  its  mark  in  cracked  spokes,  or  bent  rim,  or  if 
the  car  was  of  a  certain  type  of  construction  it  may 
have  bent  the  axle  shaft  itself.  If  the  wobble  is 
due  to  a  bend  in  the  rim,  it  wears  the  tires  exces- 
sively and  if  the  spokes  have  been  a  little  cracked 
it  weakens  the  wheel ;  if  the  axle  shaft  has  been  bent, 
it  is  causing  undue  wear  in  the  bearing;  and  under 
all  of  these  conditions  there  is  too  much  wear  of 
the  tires. 

During  the  winter  skidding  is  prevalent,  much 
more  so  than  at  other  seasons.  This  is  due  to  the 
fact  that  snow  and  ice  keep  the  pavements  wet  or 
icy,  according  to  the  temperature.  There  is 
ancv'.er  element  entering  into  the  situation,  how- 
ever; most  folks  who  travel  at  this  time  of  the  year, 
because  of  the  cold  and  discomforts  of  motoring, 
desire  to  get  there  and  so  travel  faster — the  very 
fact  that  they  are  uncomfortable  causes  them  to 


78       Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

1  pay  less  attention  to  driving  with  care.  The  result 
is  that  they  run  up  close  behind  some  other  vehicle 
which  stops  quickly ;  then  they  jam  on  the  brakes 
hard  and  skid.  Or,  a  car  comes  out  of  a  side  street 
suddenly,  making  it  necessary  to  swerve  quickly 
to  one  side,  or  stop,  and  the  result  is  a  skid  in  either 
case. 

A  rather  unusual  case  of  skidding  is  thus  related 
by  a  driver : 

I  was  driving  up  Broadway,  in  New  York  City, 
and  to  make  the  hill  north  of  I57th  Street  had  put  on 
a  little  more  speed,  for  the  car  was  not  a  good  hill 
climber.  A  block  or  two  above  the  subway  station 
a  boy  on  a  sled  darted  out  of  a  side  street  and  swung 
to  continue  down  the  Broadway  hill.  To  avoid 
hitting  him  I  jammed  on  the  brake  hard,  and  began 
to  skid.  There  was  a  wagon  at  the  curb  and  on  the 
other  side  of  me  an  auto  going  in  the  same  direction 
and  there  was  not  room  to  turn  out. 

I  saw  that  if  my  car  continued  to  skid  it  would 
swing  in  front  of  the  sled.  It  is  unusual  to  skid  going 
up  hill,  but  there  was  so  much  loose  snow,  with  ice 
underneath,  that  the  skid  chains  did  not  take  hold. 
There  was  but  an  instant  to  act,  much  less  time  than 
it  takes  to  tell  it,  and  I  released  the  brake  and  let 
in  the  clutch.  This  stopped  the  skidding  and  the 
car  shot  forward  just  in  time  to  let  the  boy  go  by. 

Probably  the  greatest  cause  of  skidding  is  turn- 
ing the  corner  at  too  high  speed.     This  often  cause* 


Skidding  May  Be  Minimized          79 

a  skidding  of  the  front  wheels  as  well  as  the  rear 
wheels — that  is,  the  car  is  going  so  fast  that  the 
front  wheels  do  not  get  traction  enough  to  change 
their  direction  and  when  they  attempt  to  make  the 
turn  they  skid  and  the  car  goes  for  the  curb. 
Applying  the  brake  usually  will  overcome  this  skid. 

In  a  rear-wheel  skid  the  worst  thing  one  can  do 
is  to  apply  the  brake.  It  is  best  to  let  the  car 
coast,  turning  the  front  wheels  in  the  direction  in 
which  the  rear  end  of  the  car  is  skidding;  if  it  is 
trying  to  go  to  the  left,  turn  the  front  wheels  that 
way.  If  there  is  something  in  the  way,  so  that  it 
is  necessary  to  stop,  the  brake  may  be  applied  a 
little  as  the  wheels  take  hold,  leaving  the  clutch 
engaged,  which  prevents  locking  the  wheels,  as  the 
engine  is  pulling  against  the  brake  and  there  is  not 
so  much  danger  of  locking  the  wheels.  It  keeps 
the  wheels  revolving  slowly,  so  that  you  get  a 
better  traction  for  stopping. 

It  takes  a  greater  pressure  applied  laterally  to 
start  the  wheel  sliding  than  to  keep  it  skidding  once 
it  is  started,  and  you  can  bring  the  car  to  a  stand- 
still much  quicker  if  you  can  keep  the  wheels  from 
sliding.  A  little  practice  will  teach  the  driver  just 
how  much  he  can  apply  the  brake  without  causing 
the  wheels  to  skid. 

The  bent  axle  has  been  mentioned  as  a  result  of 


8o       Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

skidding.  It  may  also  be  a  cause  for  skidding,  for 
it  sometimes  happens  that  by  hitting  the  curb  hard, 
or  the  wheel  of  another  car,  or  a  street  car,  the  rear 
axle  gets  out  of  true — perhaps  the  spring-seat  bolt 
will  shear  off — and  the  wheels  will  not  track  with 
the  front  wheels.  This  will  cause  skidding. 

When  there  is  not  snow  during  the  cold  months, 
often  water  is  used  to  sweep  or  flush  the  streets. 
Wet  asphalt  is  always  slippery,  whether  it  is  warm 
or  cold,  but  in  cold  weather  it  often  freezes  and  the 
pavement  is  dangerous  and  skidding  is  almost 
certain  unless  care  be  taken.  The  street-car 
tracks  are  another  cause  of  skidding.  Often  it  is 
necessary  to  give  the  front  wheels  a  considerable 
turn  to  get  out  of  the  track  when  necessary,  and, 
especially  if  they  are  wet — and  they  are  wet  when 
other  parts  of  the  pavement  are  dry — the  rear 
wheels  will  continue  in  the  tracks,  causing  a  bad 
skid.  Under  no  circumstances  should  one  habitu- 
ally drive  in  the  car  tracks  when  the  streets  are  wet. 

If  the  brakes  are  adjusted  unevenly,  so  that 
there  is  a  little  more  pressure  on  the  one  wheel  than 
the  other  and  therefore  stops  it  a  little  more,  it 
will  cause  skidding.  Another  case  may  come  from 
giving  the  steering  wheel  a  little  twist  just  as  the 
brake  is  applied.  Occasionally  in  an  emergency 
stop  the  driver  will  give  a  hasty  glance  behind  to 


Skidding  May  Be  Minimized          81 

see  if  a  car  is  close  upon  him.  The  hands  follow 
the  eye,  it  is  said,  and  this  will  often  give  the  slight 
twist  that  causes  the  wheels  to  slide. 

Some  cars  skid  because  the  weight  is  not  bal- 
anced on  the  wheels — that  is,  there  is  too  much 
weight  on  front  or  rear  wheels.  There  is  a  re- 
markable difference  in  cars  in  this  respect  and  it 
might  be  well  before  buying  a  car  to  try  it  out  on 
its  likelihood  to  skid. 

There  are  numerous  designs  of  non-skid  tires 
and  they  do  prevent,  or  decrease,  skidding  to  a 
very  large  degree  on  some  cars.  While  they  help 
in  some  cases,  it  is  not  well  to  depend  upon  them 
entirely.  It  is  the  general  practice  now  to  use  non- 
skid  chains.  On  muddy  roads  they  are  a  necessity 
and  on  wet  asphalt  are  almost  as  essential  and 
chains  should  be  used  under  such  circumstances; 
but  as  they  cause  excessive  wear  on  the  tires,  they 
should  only  be  used  when  needed.  The  driver 
should  not  allow  himself  to  be  either  too  hurried  or 
too  lazy  to  put  them  on  and  take  them  off  accord- 
ing to  the  condition  of  the  pavement.  Better  to 
do  this  a  dozen  times  a  day  rather  than  wear  out  a 
set  of  tires  or  skid  into  the  curb  or  a  street  car. 

They  should  be  adjusted  loosely,  so  they  can 
creep  around  and  wear  the  entire  circumference  of 
the  tire  slightly  but  evenly ;  if  they  are  so  tight  they 


82       Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

cannot  creep,  the  cross  chains  will  cut  away  the 
outer  rubber  right  down  to  the  fabric.  A  great 
many  tires  are  ruined  in  that  way.  Tires  cut  this 
way  cannot  be  turned  back  to  the  manufacturer 
for  replacement,  for  the  adjuster  will  know  at  once 
what  caused  the  wear. 

Be  sure  there  are  a  sufficient  number  of  cross 
chains  so  that  it  will  not  be  possible  for  the  brakes 
to  stop  the  wheel  between  the  cross  links,  for  in 
that  event  it  will  slide  just  as  badly  as  though  no 
chains  were  used.  As  a  car  is  more  likely  to  skid 
going  down  grade  than  on  the  level,  it  follows  that 
extra  care  should  be  exercised,  and  that  the  driver 
should  slow  speed  for  a  stop  farther  away  than 
would  ordinarily  be  necessary,  and  that  the  stop 
should  be  gradual.  One  should  watch  closely  on  a 
hill,  for  there  is  a  greater  coasting  momentum  and 
a  greater  tendency  for  the  rear  wheels  to  slew 
around,  because  of  the  weight  upon  them. 

After  all,  the  greatest  preventive  of  skidding  is 
care.  The  driver  who  keeps  his  eyes  and  wits 
about  him  will  have  his  car  under  control  in  situa- 
tions which  might  possibly  cause  skidding.  It  is 
an  essential  of  economy  in  tires  and  wheels  and 
some  other  parts  of  the  mechanism,  and  it  is  an 
essential  in  safety,  for  some  very  bad,  even  fatal, 
accidents  have  come  from  skidding  at  an  unfortu- 


Skidding  May  Be  Minimized          83 

nate  moment,  when  care  would  have  prevented 
it.  It  is  no  fun  to  incur  injury  to  person  or  car, 
or  to  pay  for  repairs  or  excessive  renewals;  he 
who  would  avoid  causes  for  much  of  this  should 
beware  of  skidding. 


CHAPTER  XIV 
"CAN'T- SLIP  HEELS"  LESSEN  SKIDDING 

IF  your  auto  is  not  equipped  with  "Can't-Slip 
Heels, "  the  green  or  pink  plugged  shock  absorbers, 
the  same  as  you  wear  on  your  own  heels  to  keep 
from  skidding  over  the  sidewalk,  perhaps  it  were 
well  to  look  into  it  a  little.  Autos  as  well  as  men 
take  to  skidding  quite  easily,  and  not  infrequently 
come  to  grief. 

We  use  rubber  heels  to  absorb  shocks  and  jars 
just  as  we  use  rubber  tires  on  the  auto  to  absorb 
road  shocks.  We  find  in  both  instances  that  in  wet 
weather  the  pavement  becomes  lubricated  and  a 
slip  or  skid  is  likely  to  result  in  damage  to  person 
or  car.  In  the  case  of  rubber  heels  it  was  found 
desirable  to  provide  some  means  to  prevent  slip- 
ping, and  plugs  were  inserted  which  grip  the  ice 
or  slippery  surface  and  hold  fast.  Tire  manufac- 
turers have  developed  all  sorts  of  devices,  such  as 
projections  and  recesses,  vacuum  cups,  etc.,  in  the 
84 


"Can't-Slip  Heels"  Lessen  Skidding    85 

tread  of  the  tire,  to  keep  them  from  slipping.  In 
one  case  the  device  has  been  very  successful,  where 
the  manufacturer  has  inserted '  strips  of  cotton 
fabric  in  the  tread  of  the  tire,  on  the  same  prin- 
ciple as  the  plug  in  the  rubber  heels. 

The  fabric,  really  a  thick  canvas,  projects  a  very 
little  beyond  the  rubber  surface,  and  gives  the 
tire  a  better  traction  than  plain  rubber  would  have 
on  a  slippery  pavement,  and  makes  one  of  the  best 
non-skid  combinations.  You  doubtless  will  re- 
member that  rubbers  worn  smooth  are  more  slip- 
pery than  the  leather  heels  with  their  nails;  or  that 
the  rubber  heels  which  have  no  plugs  get  very 
"slick"  and  are  worse  than  nothing.  It  is  exactly 
the  same  with  rubber  tires. 

No  matter  with  what  non-skid  device  tires  are 
equipped,  there  is  always  the  danger  of  slipping 
when  the  pavements  are  wet  or  slushy,  and  the 
fact  that  such  equipment  is  used  should  not  make 
the  driver  think  that  he. can  drive  at  high  speed 
with  safety.  On  ordinary  wet  pavements  very 
satisfactory  results  are  obtained  with  most  of  the 
regular  non-skid  types  of  tires.  Where  ice  or 
packed  snow  or  surface  mud  is  encountered, 
chains  are  better.  In  very  deep  mud,  loose  sand, 
or  loose  snow,  heavy  rope  wrapped  around  the  tire 
between  the  spokes  will  probably  be  found  best. 


86       Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

In  an  emergency,  when  caught  out  in  the  country, 
it  might  be  necessary  to  cut  up  a  blanket  or  find 
some  other  substitute  for  the  rope. 

When  there  is  a  telephone  pole  or  post  near  at 
hand  when  the  car  becomes  stuck  in  loose  snow, 
sand,  or  deep  mud,  often  the  car  may  be  pulled  out 
if  a  tow  rope  long  enough  is  handy.  Fasten  one 
end  of  the  rope  to  the  pole  and  the  other  to  the 
forward  part  of  the  rear  wheel.  Then  start  the 
engine  and  if  the  rope  is  strong  enough  and  it  is 
stretched  tight  enough,  as  the  wheel  revolves  it 
will  start  the  car  forward.  Take  a  fresh  hitch  on 
the  pole  and  try  it  again.  A  few  inches  at  a  time 
it  will  pull  the  car  forward,  a  distance  equal  to 
about  the  diameter  of  the  wheel,  and  in  time  get 
the  wheel  out  of  the  rut  or  hole  so  that  it  may  grip 
the  solid  earth  again. 

The  flat  steel  stud  tires  are  absolutely  worthless 
on  ice;  they  are  good  skates,  but  for  gripping  the 
ice  they  are  failures. 

The  great  majority  of  skids  are  due  to  excessive 
speed.  The  author  has  been  told  by  a  driver  who 
drifted  into  another  car  and  broke  both  head- 
lights that  he  was  only  going  ten  miles  an  hour. 
This  was  probably  true,  but  unquestionably  he 
was  going  too  fast  for  the  condition  of  the  streets 
and  his  tires.  It  is  quite  necessary  that  the  driver 


"Can't-Slip  Heels"  Lessen  Skidding     87 

should  know  how  his  car  is  going  to  behave  under 
all  conditions  and  drive  accordingly. 

Occasionally  the  crown  of  the  road  will  cause  a 
slip  of  front  or  rear  wheels  to  the  side  that  cannot 
be  prevented  by  a  reduction  in  speed;  but  the 
careful  driver  will  at  least  drive  slow  enough  under 
such  conditions  to  make  whatever  damage  might 
occur  from  this  cause  as  light  as  possible.  Where- 
ever  a  road  has  a  crown  there  is  always  increased 
danger  of  skidding,  but  often  these  roads  that  have 
a  hard  slippery  section  in  the  middle  have  a  narrow 
strip  of  gravel  or  dirt  on  each  side.  Where  this 
is  the  case  it  would  be  better  to  drive  with  one  pair 
of  -wheels  in  the  dirt  rather  than  to  keep  in  the 
middle,  where  slipping  is  almost  unavoidable. 

In  other  cases,  where  there  is  no  dirt  strip,  it  is 
perhaps  better  to  keep  right  in  the  middle  of  the 
road  and  to  use  great  caution  in  turning  out  for 
other  vehicles. 

Rounding  a  corner  at  high  speed  is,  of  course,  a 
direct  invitation  for  a  very  serious  skid.  Making 
sharp  turns  of  the  steering  wheel  on  straightaway 
is  also  dangerous.  When  driving  in  traffic  on 
slippery  pavements,  care  should  be  taken  not  to 
follow  another  vehicle  too  close  and  to  judge 
stops  far  enough  in  advance  so  that  the  car  may 
be  brought  to  a  standstill,  if  necessary,  several 


88       Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

feet  before  the  desired  point  is  reached.  In  other 
words,  the  brakes  should  be  applied  very  carefully. 

In  extreme  cases  it  may  be  found  impossible  to 
apply  the  brakes  at  all  without  skidding,  and  it 
will  be  necessary  to  practically  allow  the  car  to  drift 
to  a  standstill.  Brakes  which  are  adjusted  so  that 
one  takes  hold  a  little  stronger  than  the  other  will 
also  cause  a  skid,  by  permitting  one  wheel  to  turn 
and  twist  the  car  about. 

When  skidding  does  occur,  about  the  only  thing 
the  driver  can  do  is  to  turn  the  steering  wheel  in 
the  direction  of  the  skidding,  with  no  pressure 
on  the  brake.  This  will -correct  the  skid  before 
damage  is  done,  provided  the  speed  is  not  too  great. 
Another  help  in  preventing  skidding  is  to  leave  the 
clutch  engaged  and  the  engine  pulling  slightly 
when  the  brake  is  applied.  Of  course^  before  the 
car  is  actually  brought  to  a  standstill  the  clutch 
must  be  released,  or  the  engine  will  stall.  The 
slight  pull  of  the  enrine  when  the  brake  is  applied 
prevents  the  locking  of  the  rear  wheels,  and  in  that 
way  prevents  skidding  in  a  large  measure. 

On  any  stormy  day  a  short  tour  of  any  of  the 
much  used  avenues  in  any  city  will  disclose  a 
variety  of  machines  which  have  had  their  skid  and 
are  against  the  curb  with  broken  wheels,  if  nothing 
worse.  It  seems  as  though  no  amount  of  advice 


"Can't-Slip  Heels"  Lessen  Skidding    89 

will  teach  the  driver  to  use  care  on  slippery  pave- 
ments. He  must  have  his  own  skid  before  he 
learns  his  lesson. 

The  season  for  skidding  is  always  with  us,  how- 
ever, and  every  patch  of  ice,  or  a  frozen  or  wet 
street  surface,  or  a  muddy  country  road  gives  the 
warning  "Drive  Carefully."  It  behooves  the 
owner,  therefore,  to  provide  his  car  with  the  best 
safety  devices  to  be  had,  whether  it  be  chains,  rope, 
tires  with  plugs  which  encircle  the  tread,  or  what- 
ever may  be  necessary.  He  will  do  this  if  he  has 
had  his  skid;  if  he  hasn't,  probably  no  amount  of 
advice  will  have  the  slightest  effect  upon  him. 


CHAPTER  XV 

AVOID  NEWLY   OILED   ROADS 

TOURISTS  going  out  on  week-end  trips  into  the 
country,  and  country  owners  who  go  into  strange 
sections,  should  pay  strict  attention  to  signs  which 
say  in  effect:  "Danger,  Road  Being  Oiled."  It 
does  not  matter  in  the  least  whether  you  believe 
in  signs  or  not,  pay  attention  to  all  such;  it  may 
save  an  upset,  or  at  least  skidding  into  the  ditch. 
An  oily  macadam  road  is  more  slippery  even  than 
a  wet  asphalt  pavement. 

The  danger  is  greater  from  the  fact  that  the 
road  is  crovned — that  is,  it  rises  in  the  center  and 
slopes  off  on  either  side  to  a  ditch.  If  you  get  off 
the  crown  on  an  oily  road  the  machine  is  pretty 
sure  to  slide  toward  the  ditch.  In  running  over  an 
oily  road  it  is  necessary  to  keep  on  the  crown  as 
much  as  possible  and  when  one  has  to  pass  another 
vehicle,  if  he  cares  much  for  his  safety,  he  had 
better  slow  down,  or  come  to  a  stop,  and  let  the 
other  fellow  worry  about  getting  by.  An  ounce  of 
90 


Avoid  Newly  Oiled  Roads  91 

caution  before  is  worth  several  horse-power  of 
energy  in  getting  the  car  back  after  it  goes  in  the 
ditch  or  tries  to  climb  a  telegraph  pole. 

Recently  the  author  had  occasion  to  visit  Orange 
County,  New  York,  and  struck  a  piece  of  very 
heavily  oiled  road  near  Goshen.  It  apparently 
had  been  oiled  the  night  before  and  the  workmen 
had  not  finished  putting  on  the  binder.  It  was 
thick  with  oil.  The  road  makers  knew  it  was 
dangerous  and  put  up  a  sign  similar  to  that  quoted 
above,  but  a  big  car  ahead  went  down  a  little  slope 
leading  to  the  oil  and  the  driver  failed  to  heed  the 
sign  quickly  enough,  and  when  we  caught  up  with 
him  he  was  in  the  ditch.  Coming  up  were  half  a 
dozen  other  cars  sliding  all  around  but  trying  to 
get  to  the  ditched  car  to  give  assistance. 

The  big  car  had  slowed  down  somewhat,  else  it 
would  have  gone  over  into  the  field,  but  it  had 
turned  completely  around  and  was  headed  in  the 
direction  whence  it  had  come.  The  other  cars 
were  sliding  in  every  direction.  When  he  found 
his  car  beginning  to  slide,  the  author  very 
cautiously  stopped,  for  his  car  was  just  moving. 
On  inquiring  of  the  driver  of  the  skidded  car,  he 
was  told  that  when  the  latter  had  found  himself 
skidding  around  he  had  jammed  on  the  brake, 
and,  of  course,  just  as  might  have  been  expected, 


92       Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

the  rear  of  the  car  went  right  around.  In  going  up 
the  slight  rise  of  ground,  the  author  met  other  cars 
and  had  to  leave  the  crown  of  the  road.  Immedi- 
ately the  rear  tires  began  to  slide  and  he  went  for 
some  distance  with  the  rear  pair  of  wheels  trying 
to  slide  down  into  the  ditch  while  the  front  pair 
were  holding  fairly  well  to  the  road.  As  soon  as 
he  could  get  back  on  the  crown  of  the  road  again, 
of  course  the  car  straightened  out  all  right. 

Any  car  which  struck  the  oiled  road  on  high 
speed  would  have  turned  over  or  smashed  against 
a  telephone  pole  and  probably  everybody  aboard 
would  have  been  hurt,  if  not  killed ;  so  it  is  wise  not 
to  be  so  absorbed  in  entertaining  one's  friends 
that  warning  signs  are  missed. 


CHAPTER  XVI 

WATCH  YOUR   BRAKES 

LOOK  well  to  the  condition  of  the  brakes  on  your 
car  before  starting  on  a  trip.  See  that  they  are  in 
good  shape  even  if  you  do  not  have  time  to  look 
over  the  engine.  The  brakes  are  more  important 
than  the  engine.  It  needs  an  engine  in  at  least 
fair  condition  to  get  anywhere,  but  if  you  do  not 
have  brakes  you  may  get  too  far — too  eternally 
far. 

Manufacturers  of  cars  have  recognized  the  im- 
portance of  the  brake  appliances  and  have  given 
considerable  attention  to  the  improvement  of  the 
brake,  designing  more  efficient  operating  mechan- 
ism, increasing  the  size  of  the  braking  surface  and 
improving  the  quality  of  the  friction  materials,  and 
also  in  protecting  the  brakes  from  excessive  wear 
due  to  grit  and  dragging  of  bands  when  not  in  use. 

The  brakes,  moreover,  on  the  average  car  of 
modern  design,  are  sufficient  for  all  general  use,  if 
used  intelligently  and  if  they  are  given  a  moderate 

93 


94       Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

amount  of  care.  But  like  most  other  parts  of  cars, 
some  owners  give  them  no  attention  whatever,  and 
consequently  there  is  frequent  failure  and  often  it 
is  a  matter  of  life  and  death  when  the  brakes  refuse 
to  work  properly. 

First  of  all,  owners  should  understand  that  there 
are  two  sets  of  brakes  on  the  car,  which  operate 
independently  of  each  other,  and  each  brake  should 
be  capable  of  holding  the  car  at  a  standstill  on 
practically  any  grade,  or,  as  the  chauffeur  usually 
puts  it,  "sliding  the  wheels." 

A  recent  experience  with  a  Ford  car  illustrates 
the  need  of  the  owner  thoroughly  understanding 
his  braking  system.  This  was  a  case  of  a  new  car 
where  the  owner  had  not  yet  become  very  familiar 
with  the  mechanism.  He  came  to  a  very  long  and 
fairly  steep  hill.  He  released  the  clutch  and 
applied  the  brake  as  he  had  been  taught,  and  got 
about  two- thirds  of  the  way  down  the  hill  when  the 
brake  lining  burned  out  and  the  brake  no  longer 
held  the  car.  Then,  because  he  forgot  what  he 
ought  to  do  (or  else  did  not  know),  the  owner  lost 
his  head  and  thought  he  was  going  to  smash,  and 
of  course  did.  The  car  ran  into  the  ditch  and  up- 
set, bent  the  front  axle,  broke  the  mud  guards  and 
top  bows,  and  mixed  things  up  generally,  but  for- 
tunately no  one  was  hurt. 


Watch  Your  Brakes  95 

This  was  all  unnecessary,  for  on  this  particular 
car  he  had  three  other  means  of  braking.  He 
could  have  pushed  the  pedal  which  engages  the 
low-speed  gear  and  kept  the  car  at  low  enough 
speed  to  negotiate  the  hill  in  safety.  Or,  he  could 
have  pushed  the  reverse  pedal,  which  on  this  par- 
ticular car  would  have  acted  as  a  very  efficient 
brake.  And,  also,  he  might  have  applied  the 
emergency  brake,  as  on  any  other  car. 

As  every  car  is  equipped  with  two  distinct  sets 
of  brakes,  drivers  should  learn  to  use  first  one  and 
then  the  other  on  long  grades,  and  this  may  be 
helped  out  considerably  by  using  the  motor  as  a 
brake — that  is,  by  cutting  off  the  ignition  and  al- 
lowing the  machine  to  push  the  engine  under  com- 
pression, and  even  more  by  engaging  a  lower  gear 
before  cutting  off  the  ignition,  so  that  there  is  a 
greater  leverage  obtained  to  retard  the  car.  Like- 
wise, long  grades  should  be  descended  at  a  com- 
paratively slow  speed  in  cases  where  the  brake  is 
at  all  necessary,  because  the  higher  speed  develops 
more  heat  and  the  brake  lining  is  more  likely  to 
burn  out. 

Of  course  the  brake  lining  has  been  improved  so 
that  it  does  not  actually  burn  out  very  readily, 
but  under  extreme  conditions  it  will  become 
charred  and  lose  its  frictional  qualities. 


96       Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

Perhaps  one  of  the  greatest  causes  of  brake  fail- 
ure is  oil.  Now  the  oil  which  gets  on  the  brakes 
usually  works  through  the  rear-axle  housing  from 
the  differential  gear.  The  owner  may  be  a  little 
too  enthusiastic  about  lubrication  and  may  put 
too  much  oil  in  the  differential  and  it  travels  along 
the  inside  of  the  axle  tube.  The  wheels  are  so 
placed  on  the  axle  that  this  oil  can  get  out  only  by 
working  over  the  wheel  bearing  and  into  the  brake 
drum.  It  will  often  be  noticed  that  the  oil  col- 
lects mostly  on  the  right-hand  brake.  This  is  be- 
cause the  crown  of  the  road,  and  perhaps  the  ditch 
alongside  of  the  road  which  is  used  in  passing  other 
cars,  tilts  the  car  so  that  the  right-hand  wheel  is 
lower  than  that  on  the  left-hand  side.  Even  where 
too  much  lubricant  is  not  used,  it  seems  that  some 
cars  have  a  tendency  to  leak  oil  from  the  right-hand 
wheel  housing. 

Usually  this  trouble  may  be  overcome  by  taking 
a  long,  thin  strip  of  hard  felt  of  the  proper  thickness 
to  fill  the  space  between  the  axle  shaft  and  the 
axle  housing,  and  winding  around  the  shaft  in  heli- 
cal form,  so  that  the  action,  when  the  shaft  is 
turned,  is  to  force  the  oil  back  toward  the  differen- 
tial. Of  course,  if  the  felt  is  not  wound  in  the 
right  way  it  would  have  the  opposite  tendency  and 
draw  the  oil  out  into  the  wheel  bearing. 


Watch  Your  Brakes  97 

For  this  reason  the  felt  should  be  wound,  starting 
from  the  wheel  end,  in  a  direction  opposite  to  the 
forward  motion  of  the  wheel,  covering  the  axle  for 
a  distance  of  six  or  eight  inches.  The  felt  should 
be  fastened  to  the  shaft  with  shellac  and  bound  in 
three  or  four  places  with  cord. 

While  oil  on  the  brake  bands  is  not  desirable, 
oil  on  all  of  the  bearing  points  of  the  brake 
mechanism  is  highly  desirable.  Some  time,  when 
driving  in  a  city,  take  notice  of  the  number  of 
times  the  brake  is  applied.  Then  stop  to  think 
how  each  action  is  taking  place  in  the  brake 
mechanism.  This  ought  to  bring  one  to  realize  the 
necessity  of  lubricating  the  bearing  parts.  These 
need  more  frequent  oiling  because  they  are  placed 
where  they  pick  up  more  than  the  usual  amount  of 
dust  and  grit.  If  the  lubrication  of  these  parts  is 
neglected  they  are  likely  to  wear  unduly  and  be- 
come so  weakened  that  a  sudden  emergent  strain 
would  mean  a  break;  and  this  might  happen  at  a 
time  when  failure  means  death  to  the  occupants 
of  the  car. 

Brakes  of  modern  design  are  so  arranged  that 
the  bands  clear  the  drum  entirely  when  they  are 
disengaged.  This  is  done  by  means  of  springs  and 
other  devices  placed  around  the  drum  at  different 
points.  These  springs  should  be  inspected  occa- 


98       Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

sionally  to  make  sure  that  they  have  not  become 
broken  or  otherwise  fail  in  the  performance  of 
their  functions. 

Another  cause  of  brake  failure  is  due  to  the  lining 
wearing  thin  and  allowing  the  copper  rivets,  with 
which  it  is  fastened  to  the  band,  to  come  in  contact 
with  the  brake  drum.  This  in  time  scores  grooves 
in  the  drum  and  greatly  reduces  the  braking  effect. 
It  is  not  economy,  therefore,  to  wear  the  brake  lin- 
ings entirely  through.  When  they  become  thin 
the  linings  should  be  inspected,  and  be  replaced 
as  soon  as  the  rivets  begin  to  show  wear. 

The  usual  practice  is  to  have  four  brakes,  one  on 
each  rear  wheel  operated  by  the  service-brake  pedal 
and  one  on  each  rear  wheel  operated  by  the  emer- 
gency lever.  The  emergency  brake  is  designed 
more  for  holding  the  car  at  standstill  after  it  has 
been  stopped,  but  may  be  used  alternately  with 
the  service  brake  on  long  grades.  The  service 
brake  should  be  kept  in  such  condition  that  it  will 
bring  the  car  to  a  stop  within  a  reasonable  distance 
at  any  car  speed,  and  it  should  be  understood  by 
the  driver  that  the  emergency  brake  is  not  intended 
to  be  used  to  help  out  the  service  brake  which 
holds  poorly  when  a  quick  stop  is  desired. 

Many  manufacturers  term  the  second  brake 
the  hand  brake,  rather  than  the  emergency  brake, 


s 


Watch  Your  Brakes  99 

to  discourage  the  idea  that  it  is  to  be  used  to  help 
out  when  an  extra  quick  stop  is  desired.  Too 
many  owners  go  upon  the  assumption  that  one 
good  brake  is  all  that  is  necessary,  and  allow  one  to 
get  into  such  condition  as  to  be  useless  when  the 
other  fails  unexpectedly,  or  when  it  is  desirable 
to  use  the  two  sets  alternately. 

As  to  the  adjustment  of  brakes,  it  is  very  impor- 
tant, in  order  to  get  the  best  braking  effect — and  to 
save  wear  on  the  tires  as  well — to  have  both  brakes 
of  a  set  give  about  the  same  friction.  There  are 
two  places  where  adjustments  may  be  made,  one 
at  each  brake  and  one  on  the  brake  linkage,  usu- 
ally on  each  side,  but  possibly  on  the  single  rod 
connected  to  the  pedal.  By  means  of  these  two 
adjustments  it  is  possible  to  have  the  bands  clear 
the  drums  when  the  brakes  are  released  and  at 
the  same  time  have  each  brake  start  to  take  hold 
at  the  same  time  and  with  equal  force.  The 
equalizing  bar  helps  out  in  small  variations,  but 
cannot  be  expected  to  take  care  of  the  entire  ad- 
justment. 

When  one  considers  the  multitude  of  accidents 
because  the  "brake  gave  way"  and  of  the  risk 
taken  by  others  who  fail  to  care  for  this  impor- 
tant bit  of  mechanism,  it  would  surely  suggest  to 
the  careful  man  that  he  study  the  construction 


ioo     Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

of  the  brake  upon  which  he  depends  on  a  down 
grade  and  that  he  give  it  enough  attention  to 
know  that  it  is  in  working  order.  If  he  does  not 
value  his  own  neck  enough  for  that,  he  should  at 
least  have  a  care  for  those  who  share  the  danger. 


CHAPTER  XVII 

WHY  THE  AUTO  STEERS  EASILY 

VISIONS  of  disaster  come  to  the  automobile 
driver  at  the  thought  of  running  without  the 
steering  tie  rod.  One  thinks  of  wheels  trying 
to  go  in  divergent  directions  and  of  ultimate 
destination  in  the  ditch.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  it 
is  possible  to  run  along  quite  a  while  at  moder- 
ate speed  with  only  one  wheel  connected  to  the 
steering  apparatus,  and  experiments  have  demon- 
strated that  this  can  be  done  at  quite  a  lively  gait, 
on  a  speed  track,  whether  straightaway  or  oval. 
There  are  several  other  peculiarities  about  the 
front  wheels  of  an  automobile  which  are  not  fully 
understood  by  automobile  men,  unless  they  have 
had  technical  training. 

Most  people  think  the  front  wheels  of  an  auto- 
mobile should  be  perfectly  true  in  every  way ;  that 
is  that  they  should  run  parallel,  but  as  a  matter 
of  fact  they  do  not  run  parallel  from  any  view- 
point. The  front  wheels  actually  toe  in  to  a  slight 


IO2     Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

degree — that  is,  the  distance  between  the  front  part 
of  the  wheels  should  be  one-quarter  to  three-eighths 
of  an  inch  smaller  than  the  distance  measured 
between  the  back  parts.  The  tire  manufacturer 
will  tell  one  that  the  wheels  must  be  in  perfect 
alignment  if  full  service  is  to  be  gotten  out  of  the 
tires.  This  is  true  in  a  degree,  but  auto  manu- 
facturers understand  that  there  must  be  a  slight 
foregather. 

Theoretically  there  would  be  a  wear  on  the  tires 
if  they  were  at  all  out  of  true,  but  when  it  comes  to 
the  practical  consideration  of  an  automobile  there 
are  certain  variations  of  this  which  are  necessary 
to  make  the  operation  of  the  car  safe  and  a  matter 
of  ease. 

Of  course  there  cannot  be  too  great  a  difference 
in  the  alignment,  but  a  very  slight  difference  is 
necessary  to  enable  the  steering  to  be  a  matter 
of  certainty.  There  will  be,  of  course,  an 
intangible  amount  of  wear,  but  it  does  not  cut 
any  particular  figure  in  the  life  of  the  tire  and  it 
gives  a  stability  in  the  steering  which  cannot  be 
neglected. 

Perhaps  it  can  best  be  illustrated  by  referring  to 
two  types  of  boats  which  are  familiar  to  most  per- 
sons. One  is  the  scow  with  the  square  nose,  which 
is  very  hard  to  steer  either  with  or  against  the  tide; 


Why  the  Auto  Steers  Easily         103 

it  is  pushing  flat  against  the  water  and  there  is  no 
lateral  pressure  to  keep  it  steady.  The  pointed- 
bow  boat,  the  ordinary  type,  has  a  pressure  upon 
each  bow  so  that  there  is  a  constant  resistance 
against  any  extraordinary  pressure  from  either 
direction.  This  makes  it  necessary  in  steering  to 
exert  a  certain  pressure  to  turn  the  boat  about.  In 
actual  practice  it  keeps  the  boat  from  wobbling. 
The  same  is  true  when  applied  to  the  front  wheels. 
If  they  are  perfectly  aligned  there  will  be  no  tend- 
ency to  give  one  way  more  than  another  and  very 
little  pressure  would  tend  to  turn  the  wheels  aside 
and  make  the  car  wobble.  Experience  teaches 
that  this  actually  occurs. 

At  the  automobile  school,  of  course,  there  are 
many  novices  learning  to  steer  a  car,  and  they  are 
taken  out  by  experts.  Where  the  wheels  are  ac- 
tually aligned  perfectly  the  wobbling  effect,  es- 
pecially where  the  mechanism  is  a  little  worn,  is 
very  disconcerting  to  the  student.  Now,  if  the 
wheels  toe  in  there  is  exactly  the  same  pressure 
effect  working  from  opposite  directions.  Each 
seeks  to  go  slightly  out  of  true  and  each  offsets 
that  tendency  in  the  other.  This  naturally  keeps 
the  car  steady  and  the  wheels  pass  over  slight  ob- 
structions without  turning  them  in  the  slightest 
degree;  only  a  rut  or  some  large  obstruction  would 


i  Q4     Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

cause  them  to  turn  and  this  would  be  the  case 
under  all  circumstances. 

In  case  there  is  wear  due  to  neglected  lubrication 
or  otherwise,  the  wobbling  tendency  is  especially 
noticeable.  With  the  wheels  toeing  in  slightly 
this  is  overcome,  because  pressure  is  exerted  on  the 
knuckle  pins,  keeping  them  firmly  in  place,  even 
though  there  be  considerable  wear.  The  pressure 
being  from  both  sides,  it  naturally  takes  up  the 
play  in  both  knuckles  the  same  as  with  a  chain 
when  it  is  drawn  tight. 

Nor  do  the  front  wheels  run  in  an  absolutely 
vertical  position,  for  they  are  set  to  undergather. 
This  is  done  to  save  the  tremendous  strain  upon 
the  knuckles  and  make  it  possible  to  have  these 
much  lighter  than  would  otherwise  be  the  case. 
The  fact  of  the  undergather,  of  course,  takes  the 
strain  off  the  steering  knuckle  pins.  Were  the 
wheels  absolutely  vertical  they  would  set  two  or 
perhaps  three  inches  outside  the  knuckle.  The 
weight  line  being  directly  through  the  knuckle  to 
the  ground,  there  would  be  a  leverage  of  two  or 
three  inches  which  would  put  a  tremendous  strain 
directly  upon  the  knuckle;  where  the  wheels  are 
undergathered,  the  line  of  weight  intersects  both 
the  knuckle  and  the  tread  contact,  removing  the 
item  of  leverage  completely,  and  the  wheel  neces- 


Why  the  Auto  Steers  EasUy         105 

sarily  bears  its  full  proportion  of  the  load  without 
undue  strain  upon  the  knuckle  or  pin. 

Sometimes  the  pins  are  inclined  fore  and  aft, 
that  is,  the  bottom  is  farther  forward  than  the 
top.  This  is  to  help  in  keeping  the  wheels  pointed 
straight  ahead  by  making  the  wheels  into  sort  of  a 
caster,  so  that  they  trail  easily.  The  knuckles  are 
directly  over  the  center  of  the  wheels  and  the  line 
of  weight  would  be  directly  downward,  but  the 
pins  point  forward.  In  this  way,  as  engineers 
.readily  understand,  the  line  of  weight  is  moved 
forward  and  the  weight  is  carried  ahead  of  the  con- 
tact point  of  the  tire  with  the  ground.  Anyone 
who  has  ever  ridden  a  bicycle  understands  the 
principle  of  this.  In  the  old  velocipedes  where  the 
wheel  fork  was  vertical,  it  was  very  difficult  to 
steer.  Bicycle  manufacturers  discovered  that  by 
projecting  the  fork  forward  and  transferring  the 
weight  line  in  advance  of  the  wheel,  they  were  able 
to  make  a  machine  which  would  naturally  go 
straight  ahead.  The  principle  is  exactly  that  of 
the  caster.  The  roller  trails  along  after  the  weight 
and  so  moves  freely,  even  over  obstructions,  where 
it  would  be  hard  going  if  the  roller  were  directly 
under  the  weight. 

Now,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  wheels  which  are 
set  in  the  manner  described  may  run  for  a 


106     Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

considerable  distance  without  the  tie  rod,  which 
fastens  the  knuckles  together.  It  is  usually 
understood  that  when  the  tie  rod  breaks  there  is 
bound  to  be  a  smash  at  high  speed,  and  under  most 
circumstances  this  might  be  true,  but  at  moderate 
speeds  it  often  happens  that  the  car  runs  a  con- 
siderable distance,  steering  perfectly,  after  the  tie 
rod  has  been  broken. 

The  author  had  an  experience  of  this  kind.  He 
was  going  up  Riverside  Drive  in  New  York  City, 
toward  the  viaduct.  After  he  had  gone  almost 
across  the  viaduct  he  was  startled  to  see  what 
looked  like  the  tie  rod  protruding  out  in  front  of  the 
car,  although  the  car  was  moving  along  with  no 
sign  of  trouble.  The  car  was  stopped  and  it  was 
found  that  the  bolt  had  jumped  out  of  the  knuckle 
on  one  side  and  that  the  tie  rod  had  actually 
swung  out  in  front,  and  not  until  then  had  it  been 
discovered  that  there  was  any  trouble. 

Going  back  over  the  route  across  the  viaduct  and 
some  distance  beyond  did  not  disclose  the  missing 
pin,  but  the  conclusion  was  reached  that  it  must 
have  come  out  on  the  hill  leading  to  the  viaduct. 
Yet  the  wheels  remained  perfectly  straight  and  the 
car  steered  properly,  although  there  were  no  very 
sharp  turns,  and  the  car  did  not  go  to  smash  as  it 
ought  to  have  done  in  theory.  It  was  the  caster 


Why  the  Auto  Steers  Easily         107 

effect  which  saved  the  car  from  an  accident.  The 
trailing  effect  described  kept  the  wheels  running 
straight  even  after  the  tie  rod  was  out  of  com- 
mission. 

Some  time  later  it  was  learned  that  the  same 
thing  actually  had  occurred  in  one  of  the  big  auto 
races.  It  so  mystified  the  driver  and  his  mechan- 
ician that  they  decided  to  experiment.  They 
fixed  up  a  car  without  a. tie  rod  and  started  to  speed 
up  on  the  track.  They  attained  quite  a  high  speed 
without  mishap  and  slowed  down  and  drove  to  the 
shed  as  though  the  steering  gear  were  regularly 
equipped. 

However,  it  is  not  recommended  that  any  auto- 
mobile owner  neglect  to  have  his  steering  apparatus 
regularly  inspected  and  to  see  that  the  pins  are 
kept  tight  and  that  the  wheels  do  not  get  too  much 
out  of  alignment.  The  pin  might  drop  out  when 
going  down  a  steep  hill  or  when  running  at  high 
speed,  and  tires  do  wear  out  when  the  wheels  are 
too  much  out  of  alignment ;  but  the  instances  cited 
show  that  sometimes  strict  theory  and  actual 
practice  do  not  always  meet. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 

THE   ELUSIVE    " JUICE" 

IT  takes  good  "juice"  and  lots  of  it  to  run  a 
modern  auto;  not  the  kind  that  Uncle  Sam  has 
put  a  ban  upon,  for  that  ran  the  auto  into  the 
ditch  oftener  than  most  anything  else;  but  some- 
thing quite  as  hot  and  with  at  least  an  equal 
amount  of  "kick"  in  it — the  electric  "juice." 

Probably  this  is  the  least  understood  element  in 
running  a  car,  if  one  may  judge  by  the  troubles 
reported.  Large  numbers  of  autoists  have  no  idea 
of  the  functions  of  the  batteries  and  wires  and 
switches  and  other  parts  of  the  electrical  equip- 
ment, and  when  anything  goes  wrong  they  are 
helpless. 

In  dealing  with  the  electrical  equipment  of  a 
machine  the  owner  should  understand  that  a 
complete  circuit  is  necessary  in  order  to  have  the 
current  do  its  work;  that  is,  starting  with  the  bat- 
tery as  the  source,  a  wire  leads  the  current  from 
the  battery  through  the  switch  to  the  device  to 
1 08 


The  Elusive  "Juice"  109 

be  operated,  and  then  the  current  must'  be  led 
back  to  the  battery  before  it  will  do  any  work.  It 
is  not  sufficient  simply  tq  lead  the  current  to  the 
device;  if  there  is  no  way  back  to  the  battery  it 
will  not  get  even  as  far  as  the  switch.  It  won't 
travel  except  on  a  round-trip  ticket. 

In  looking  for  trouble  electrically  the  first  thing 
to»inspect  is  the  battery.  See  that  it  is  charged — 
has  current  in  it.  That  can  be  determined  by  us- 
ing a  voltmeter  (for  dry  cells  an  ammeter)  or  a 
hydrometer.  Then  each  successive  terminal  from 
the  battery  should  be  tested.  For  instance,  there 
is  a  wire  to  the  lighting  switch.  It  is  insulated  and 
the  first  place  to  test  after  making  sure  that  the 
battery  is  O.  K.  is  at  the  switch.  If  there  is  no 
current  there  the  wire  may  be  broken  or  the  ter- 
minal connections  poor;  but  whatever  the  trouble 
may  be,  you  have  narrowed  it  down  to  one  small 
stretch  of  wire. 

The  next  step  would  be  to  test  where  the  wire 
leaves  the  switch  to  go  to  the  device  to  be  operated. 
If  the  current  gets  to  the  switch  and  does  not  get 
out  of  it,  it  is  apparent  that  the  trouble  is  in  the 
switch,  or  if  it  gets  to  the  switch  but  not  through 
the  fuse,  the  fuse  is  at  fault. 

If  the  current  leaves  the  fuse  and  does  not  get 
to  the  lamp  which  the  switch  controls,  then  we 


no     Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

know  that  the  trouble  is  in  that  wire  somewhere; 
if  it  gets  to  the  lamp  but  the  lamp  will  not  light, 
we  know  it  is  in  the  lamp ;  if  we  can  trace  it  through 
the  lamp,  but  it  does  not  reach  the  battery,  we 
know  that  it  is  the  wire  leading  back  to  the  battery 
which  is  at  fault. 

If  the  current  is  carried  back  through  the  frame 
of  the  car,  as  is  very  often  the  case,  frequently  the 
ground  connections  are  poor  or  there  is  a  break 
in  the  ground.  Thus,  we  might  attach  a  ground 
wire  to  a  piece  of  iron  on  the  dash,  and  if  this  is  of 
wood  that  piece  of  iron  might  be  insulated  from 
the  remainder  of  the  metal  work  of  the  car  and  the 
ground  connection  would  not  be  complete. 

Recently  the  author  came  across  some  electrical 
troubles  which  were  rather  mysterious  to  the 
owners  of  the  cars,  but  proved  to  be  simple  under 
systematic  search.  One  man  worked  all  of  one 
Sunday  morning,  with  the  help  of  several  sympa- 
thetic owner  friends  trying  to  find  out  where  an 
extra  wire  on  his  switch  should  be  connected.  He 
could  not  get  the  engine  started,  the  horn  would  not 
blow,  the  headlights  would  not  light,  the  starting 
motor  would  not  turn  over,  but  the  dash  and  tail 
lights,  which  were  in  series,  did  light. 

A  little  experiment  developed  the  fact  that  when 
the  starting  pedal  was  depressed  the  dash  light 


The  Elusive  "Juice"  in 

grew  very  dim.  This,  of  course,  indicated  that  it 
was  not  possible  to  draw  a  very  large  amount  of 
current  from  the  battery,  or  that  the  battery  was 
either  in  a  discharged  condition,  or  that  the  con- 
nections leading  from  it  were  poor.  It  was  found 
that  when  the  wire  connected  to  the  battery  ter- 
minal was  moved,  the  light  would  brighten  up. 
This  wire  was  disconnected  and  cleaned  carefully 
to  make  sure  that  the  contact  was  good.  When 
it  was  assembled  again  no  improvement  was 
shown,  so  it  was  taken  apart  again  and  a  careful 
inspection  showed  that  one  end  of  the  taper  on  the 
inside  of  the  terminal  had  a  slight  shoulder,  which 
prevented  the  taper  end  of  the  wire  from  being 
drawn  into  place  snugly.  Therefore  a  very  light 
contact  was  made  and  sufficient  current  could  not 
pass  to  operate  the  starting  motor.  This  shoulder 
was  removed  with  a  penknife  and  the  engine 
started  without  difficulty.  Several  hours'  time 
would  have  been  saved  if  the  owner  had  started 
to  look  for  the  trouble  at  the  source  of  the  current 
instead  of  puzzling  over  the  end  of  a  wire  that  was 
not  intended  to  be  connected  to  anything  and  had 
nothing  to  do  with  the  trouble.  It  was  simply 
an  extra  wire  for  use  if  some  new  device  should  be 
installed. 

A  week  later  this  same  man  was  unable  to  start 


ii2     Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

his  engine  and  again  worked  over  it  several  hours 
before  calling  for  help.  This  time  the  lights  were 
all  right,  but  the  engine  would  not  start.  To 
determine  the  condition  of  the  battery,  he  turned 
on  a  light  and  depressed  the  starter  pedal  as 
before,  to  see  if  the  light  would  dim  very  much 
under  the  heavy  load;  as  it  did  not,  it  was  de- 
cided that  the  battery  was  all  right  this  time. 

The  hood  was  open  and  it  was  observed  that 
when  the  started  pedal  was  depressed  the  fan  did 
not  revolve  and  therefore  the  engine  was  not  being 
turned  over,  though  one  could  hear  the  starting 
motor  buzzing  plainly.  This  showed  that  the 
overrunning  clutch  of  the  starting  motor  was  slip- 
ping. As  correcting  this  trouble  was  a  shop  job, 
they  cranked  the  engine  over  by  hand,  but  still 
it  did  not  start. 

To  make  sure  that  a  spark  was  being  delivered, 
the  wire  leading  from  the  ignition  coil  to  the  high 
tension  distributor  was  disconnected  and  given 
about  TS  inch  gap.  As  soon  as  this  was  done  it 
was  plain  to  see  that  a  spark  was  being  delivered, 
and  the  engine  started  immediately  also.  Making 
a  slight  gap  in  the  secondary  circuit  increases  the 
intensity  of  the  spark  at  the  plug  and  often  aids  in 
starting  a  balky  motor.  This  was  an  occasion 
when  an  outside  spark  gap  was  of  value.  After 


The  Elusive  "Juice"  113 

the  engine  was  warmed  up,  it  was  started  several 
times  without  difficulty. 

Another  fellow  who  was  in  trouble  had  a  "sick" 
horn.  It  sounded  like  a  man  who  has  a  cold  clog- 
ging his  vocal  organs — that  is,  it  gave  a  cracking 
or  rattling  sound  instead  of  a  musical  note,  if  the 
sound  of  a  horn  can  be  called  musical.  This  type 
of  horn  has  a  notched  wheel  which  revolves  and 
strikes  against  an  iron  pin  riveted  into  a  disc. 
The  disc  in  this  way  is  made  to  vibrate,  giving  the 
desired  sound.  An  examination  showed  that  the 
pin  had  become  loose  and  rattled.  It  was  ex- 
plained to  the  owner  what  the  trouble  was  and  he 
was  told  that  the  pin  was  of  hardened  steel  and  as 
it  was  rather  difficult  to  rivet  it,  it  might  loosen  up 
again.  He  replied  that  he  would  not  worry  about 
that,  because  now  that  he  knew  what  the  trouble 
was  he  could  easily  get  it  fixed  again  or  replace  it 
if  necessary. 

Another  fellow  had  a  horn  which  would  not  play 
because  it  had  become  grounded  and  blown  the 
fuse.  The  ground  was  removed,  but  as  no  fuse 
cou^d  be  obtained,  a  single  strand  of  very  fine  wire 
from  an  ignition  cable  was  substituted  in  place  of 
the  fuse.  This  wire  was  small  enough  to  burn  up 
before  other  short  circuits  could  do  damage  to 
battery  or  wiring. 


ii4     Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

Still  another  fellow  had  his  car  laid  up  for  a 
week  while  he  tried  to  find  out  what  was  the  mat- 
ter with  it.  He  had  sent  magneto  and  coil  to  the 
factory  for  repairs  and  when  they  were  returned 
to  him  a  new  type  of  coil  was  provided.  He  wired 
it  up  the  best  he  knew  how,  but  the  engine  would 
not  start.  Checking  the  wires  over  very  carefully, 
they  seemed  to  be  placed  properly,  but  a  spark 
could  not  be  obtained.  Going  to  the  source  of  the 
current,  a  test  of  the  dry  cells  with  an  ammeter 
showed  that  they  were  dead.  The  fellow  had  lost 
a  week's  use  of  the  car  because,  having  decided 
that  the  trouble  was  at  the  magneto  or  coil,  he 
did  not  look  anywhere  else.  He  should  have 
started  at  the  battery  to  trace  the  current. 

Another  case  which  came  under  notice  was  where 
one  of  the  headlights  failed  to  light.  A  test  showed 
that  the  current  came  to  the  lamp.  To  make 
sure  the  lamp  was  not  at  fault  the  one  from  the 
opposite  side  was  substituted,  but  it  would  not 
light.  The  lamp  was  grounded  by  an  extra  length 
of  wire  and  it  worked  all  right.  Then  it  was 
found  that  the  ground  wire,  which  was  located  back 
of  the  reflector  inside  the  lamp,  had  become  loose. 

Most  of  these  troubles  point  to  the  fact  that  a 
complete  circuit  is  necessary  to  hav,e  an  electrical 
current  do  its  work.  Therefore,  when  trouble  oc- 


The  Elusive  "Juice"  115 

curs,  the  source  of  the  current  should  be  examined 
first  and  then  the  current  should  be  traced  through 
its  entire  path  leading  from  and  returning  to  the 
battery. 

It  might  be  a  good  idea  for  the  owner  on  winter 
evenings  to  get  out  the  wiring  diagram  of  his  car 
and  trace  the  current  from  the  battery  through 
each  light,  through  the  ignition  system,  through 
the  horn,  and  through  every  other  electrical  device 
used  on  the  car,  including  the  generator  and  start- 
ing motor. 

Also  it  might  be  good  practice  for  the  owner  to 
carry  his  wiring  diagram  with  him  when  touring, 
so  that  the  garage  man,  if  there  be  trouble,  may 
be  helped  to  quickly  locate  it.  But  if  the  winter 
evenings  be  spent  wisely  in  studying  the  electrical 
equipment,  or  even  the  entire  car,  or  perhaps  in- 
vested in  a  course  of  instruction  at  a  good  school, 
the  owner  might  be  independent  of  the  garage  man 
for  the  most  part  and  besides  have  the  satisfaction 
of  knowing  that  when  anything  does  go  wrong  he 
can  find  it  and  in  most  cases  fix  the  trouble.  The 
release  from  worry  ought  to  be  worth  the  time 
spent  in  learning  how. 


CHAPTER  XIX 

PUTTING  THE   KICK   IN   THE   SPARK 

MOTORS  are  a  good  deal  like  men.  Very  many 
of  them,  when  everything  is  wide  open  and  they 
are  hitting  it  up  at  top  speed,  have  excellent 
performance,  but  spit  and  sputter  and  knock  a 
bit  when  compelled  to  travel  at  a  lesser  pace. 

This  is  not  moralizing,  but  the  natural  deduction 
from  the  complaints  which  are  constantly  received. 
A  great  many  drivers  want  to  know  why  it  is  they 
cannot  throttle  down  the  engine;  they  say  it  will 
pull  well  at  medium  or  high  speed,  but  skips  at 
the  lower  speeds. 

Where  magneto  ignition  is  used,  this  often  may 
be  overcome  by  adjusting  the  interrupter  points 
for  a  little  wider  gap.  That  makes  the  interrupter 
points  open  a  little  earlier  and  causes  the  spark  to 
occur  when  the  magneto  armature  is  in  a  more 
favorable  position,  and  the  spark  therefore  has 
more  kick  in  it. 

The  interrupter  points  usually  are  adjusted  for 

116 


Putting  the  Kick  in  the  Spark       117 

normal  running  speed,  or  a  little  higher  than 
medium  speed.  Increasing  the  number  of  revolu- 
tions per  minute  of  the  armature  causes  a  distor- 
tion of  the  magnetic  field,  which  tends  to  follow 
the  armature.  This  distortion  is  not  so  great  at 
lower  speeds.  To  overcome  the  distortion,  which 
in  effect  twists  the  field  around  so  that  the  points 
do  not  open  at  the  period  of  greatest  current 
potency,  we  must  change  the  time  when  the  points 
open  and  cause  the  spark;  therefore,  to  get  the 
best  spark  it  is  necessary  to  have  the  points  open 
earlier.  Widening  the  gap  between  the  points 
accomplishes  this. 

If  the  engine  misses  at  high  speed,  close  the 
points  a  little  to  make  the  opening  come  later  and 
when  in  better  armature  position,  the  action  being 
just  the  reverse  of  the  foregoing  paragraph. 

Widening  the  gap  of  the  spark  plug  also  will 
help  to  overcome  skipping  at  low  speeds.  At  low 
speeds  a  full  charge  of  gas  is  not  drawn  in  and 
compression  is  low  and  temperature  low  in  conse- 
quence; the  mixture  is  not  so  near  the  self -ignition 
point  when  the  spark  occurs  as  it  is  at  higher 
speeds.  Therefore  a  better  spark  is  needed  to 
ignite  it.  By  widening  the  gap  in  the  plugs  the 
secondary  current  is  held  back  until  it  acquires 
high  enough  potentiality  to  jump  the  greater 


n8     Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

gap;  so  that  when  it  does  occur  an  exceptionally 
powerful  spark  is  obtained. 

This  may  be  demonstrated  with  the  use  of  a 
vibrating  coil.  Set  one  of  the  cylinders  on  top  of 
compression  ready  to  ignite.  Turn  on  the  current 
and  while  the  vibrator  will  buzz  the  spark  inside 
the  cylinder  is  not  strong  enough  to  ignite  the 
charge.  Now  detach  the  spark-plug  wire  and  hold 
it  close  to  the  outer  plug  terminal  and  turn  on  the 
current.  The  extra  gap  will  increase  the  strength 
of  the  spark  in  that  cylinder  and  it  will  ignite 
the  charge,  starting  the  engine.  This  has  led  to 
the  use  in  some  cases,  of  outside  spark  gap 
attachments. 

Widening  the  gap  and  getting  a  longer  spark  is 
not  what  ignites  the  charge.  It  is  simply  that  the 
greater  gap  causes  the  current  to  build  up  to  a 
higher  pressure,  or  voltage,  before  it  will  jump  the 
gap,  so  that  when  it  does  occur  it  is  of  greater 
intensity. 

There  are  several  other  things  about  sparking 
not  generally  understood  by  the  novice.  The 
general  opinion  is  that  the  greater  insulating 
surface  of  a  plug  there  is  inside  the  cylinder  the 
less  likelihood  there  is  of  short  circuiting  and 
consequently  the  more  certain  will  be  the  spark 
occurrence.  This  is  only  partly  true;  it  is  true  so 


Putting  the  Kick  in  the  Spark       119 

far  as  short-circuiting  is  concerned ;  but  where  the 
surface  is  too  great  and  soot  or  carbon  is  deposited 
upon  the  insulator  surface,  the  carbon  acts  as  a 
condenser  and  absorbs  the  secondary  current. 
The  effect  is  that  it  will  not  build  up  a  sufficiently 
high  voltage  to  jump  the  gap.  Very  heavy  insula- 
tion on  the  secondary  wires  absorbs  current  in  the 
same  way. 

The  fact  that  the  spark  jumps  across  the  points 
of  the  plug  when  it  is  in  the  open  air  does  not 
necessarily  mean  that  it  jumps  when  the  points 
are  under  compression  in  running  conditions.  A 
current  which  will  cause  a  spark  to  jump  a  half- 
inch  gap  in  the  open  air,  will  cause  it  to  jump  a 
gap  of  only  3^  inch  under  normal  running  com- 
pression. Failure  to  appreciate  this  often  results 
in  a  man  thinking  his  ignition  is  all  right  when 
there  may  be  a  crack  in  the  insulation  so  small 
that  it  scarcely  can  be  seen  with  the  naked  eye 
when  cleaning  the  plug,  or  there  may  be  a  porous 
spot  in  the  porcelain,  either  of  which  would  leak 
current  under  compression.  Many  manufacturers 
test  the  porcelains  to  see  if  they  leak,  using  a  spark 
gap  of  f  inch  under  a  very  high  voltage. 

If  there  is  carbon  on  the  porcelain,  the  current 
very  often  will  travel  through  this  under  high  com- 
pression, because  there  is  less  resistance  offered 


I2O     Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

by  the  carbon  than  by  the  spark  gap.  It  short- 
circuits  the  plug  and  there  is  no  ignition.  Yet, 
when  this  same  plug  is  removed  and  tested  in  the 
open  air,  there  will  be  a  good  spark ;  the  resistance 
of  the  gap  in  the  open  air  would  be  less  than  the 
resistance  offered  by  a  path  through  the  carbon 
coating.  If  on  testing  a  plug  in  this  way  there 
seems  to  be  a  good  spark,  yet  the  cylinder  will  not 
fire,  clean  the  plug  thoroughly  and  try  it  out  in 
the  cylinder.  If  it  still  does  not  fire,  try  a  plug 
which  you  know  is  all  right  and  see  if  it  fires.  If 
it  does,  you  may  know  that  the  old  plug  leaks 
current  somehow  and  probably  needs  a  new 
porcelain. 

It  is  a  common  error  with  motorists  when 
cleaning  a  spark  plug  to  polish  up  the  points  and 
call  it  a  job.  What  really  is  required  is  to  remove 
all  of  the  carbon,  which  is  a  fair  conductor  of 
electricity,  from  the  porcelain  or  mica  and  get 
these  back  into  the  insulator  class  again. 

The  conditions  which  allow  the  adjustment  of 
the  interrupter  points  in  magneto  ignition  to 
accommodate  certain  speeds,  do  not  arise  when 
battery  ignition  is  used.  Battery  interrupter 
points  are  usually  adjusted  for  an  opening  of  614 
inch  and  the  gap  at  the  spark-plug  points  must 
be  greater  usually  than  when  magneto  ignition  is 


Putting  the  Kick  in  the  Spark       121 

used,  because  the  spark  given  by  battery  systems 
is  naturally  of  less  volume  than  that  given  by  the 
magneto.  Therefore  the  gap  must  be  greater  to 
intensify  the  current  as  before  described. 

The  interrupter  points  sometimes  become  coated 
with  an  insulating  glaze,  composed  of  oxides  and 
dirt  hammered  by  the  action  of  the  movable  in- 
terrupter point,  or  hammer.  The  points  will  have 
the  appearance  of  being  all  right ;  there  will  be  no 
pits  or  points;  nevertheless  there  may  be  enough 
insulating  material  there  to  keep  the  current  from 
flowing  and  no  spark  will  occur  in  consequence. 
The  points  may  be  cleaned  by  inserting  a  very- 
thin  file  between  the  points  when  they  are  open 
and  then  allowing  them  to  close  on  the  file,  being 
held  together  with  no  more  pressure  than  the 
spring  exerts,  and  working  the  file  back  and  forth 
until  the  glaze  is  removed.  It  is  necessary  to  have 
a  flat  surface,  so  that  care  in  using  the  file  is 
needed,  and,  as  platinum  is  more  valuable  than 
gold  at  present,  it  will  be  apparent  that  as  little 
filing  as  possible  should  be  done. 

The  condenser  is  another  point  of  possible 
trouble.  The  condenser  increases  the  volume  of 
the  spark  about  twenty-five  times.  We  often  find 
that  a  very  weak  spark  may  be  caused  by  a  partial 
breaking  down  of  the  condenser,  or  occasionally 


122     Putnam 's  Automobile  Handbook 

to  the  fact  that  it  is  disconnected  at  the  terminal. 
Condensers  are  usually  hidden  away  so  that  the 
novice  cannot  locate  troubles  of  this  nature,  but 
an  excessive  sparking  at  the  interrupter  or  vibrator 
points,  with  a  very  weak  spark  at  the  plug  points, 
indicates  that  the  condenser  is  not  working  prop- 
erly. When  this  sparking  occurs  have  an  expert 
examine  the  condenser  for  trouble. 


CHAPTER  XX 
WHAT'S  THE  TROUBLE  WITH  MY  BATTERY? 

WITH  the  coming  of  the  shorter  days  in  the  year 
a  frequent  complaint  to  garage  man  and  battery 
or  electric-system  expert  has  to  do  with  the 
battery,  though  in  nine  times  out  of  ten  the  man 
with  the  kick  does  not  know  that  it  is  the  battery. 
He  will  talk  about  the  lights  failing  every  once  in 
a  while,  or  the  horn  refusing  to  honk  on  demand. 
But  in  the  majority  of  cases  it  is  the  battery  which 
is  at  fault. 

It  is  more  difficult  to  keep  the  battery  charged 
at  that  time  of  the  year  than  it  is  in  the  summer. 
The  reason  is  that  the  sun  sets  earlier,  and  just 
as  our  electric  light  and  gas  bills  mount  at  home, 
because  we  light  the  lamps  earlier,  so  it  is  with  the 
auto.  The  driver  who  obeys  the  law  uses  more 
current. 

One  complaint  came  from  an  owner  who  was 
experiencing  trouble  with  his  electric  plant.  The 
lights  would  not  work  right  when  he  was  running. 
123 


124     Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

Starting  out  there  was  light,  but  after  running  a 
short  time  there  was  trouble.  The  lamps  were 
fitted  with  dimmers  and  these  would  not  work  at 
all  times ;  sometimes  one  would  light  and  the  other 
fail.  He  went  to  the  garage  repair  man  and  then 
the  dimmers  would  not  work  at  all.  He  went  to  an 
expert  electrician,  who  looked  over  the  battery 
and  declared  it  to  be  all  right,  but  on  the  ground 
that  he  was  a  battery  expert  and  not  a  wir- 
ing expert  he  could  not  say  why  the  lights 
would  not  shine  and  the  owner  had  visions 
of  stern  policemen  and  the  possibility  of  having 
to  face  a  traffic  judge,  and  he  sought  advice 
elsewhere. 

In  the  meantime  his  troubles  multiplied.  The 
horn — electric — refused  to  honk  at  times  and  got 
so  that  it  worked  only  after  the  car  had  been 
running  half  an  hour  or  so.  This  was  the  case  the 
writer  was  asked  to  diagnose. 

While  trying  to  determine  the  cause,  questions 
asked  developed  that  the  owner  was  employed 
during  most  of  the  day  and  only  ran  his  car 
nights,  except  that  he  was  making  long  trips  on 
Saturday  and  Sunday,  and  ran  quite  late  into 
the  night  both  days.  During  the  week  nights 
his  trips  were  short,  with  numerous  stops.  This 
caused  frequent  use  of  the  self-starter.  He  found 


THEN    HE    WENT   TO    SCHOOL   TO    LEARN    SOME    MORE    ABOUT    HIS    CAR 


What's  the  Trouble  with  my  Battery?  125 

it  took  longer  to  start  the  car,  a  natural  result  of 
the  cooler  weather. 

These  facts  suggested  that  the  battery  was  being 
starved;  that  is,  that  it  was  not  getting  enough 
charge  to  keep  it  at  its  best.  There  seemed  to  be 
no  trouble  with  the  wiring  and  the  owner  was  told 
he  had  better  have  the  battery  charged  and  see 
if  his  troubles  did  not  end.  They  did.  Then  he 
went  to  school  to  learn  some  more  about  his  car. 

His  trouble  was  that  he  did  most  of  his  running 
at  night  and  as  he  carefully  observed  the  speed 
laws,  consequently  the  generator  did  not  generate 
very  much  extra  current  and  the  battery  was  being 
recharged  at  a  very  low  rate  and  being  discharged 
at  a  rather  high  rate.  In  other  words,  he  was 
chopping  off  both  ends — burning  both  ends  of  his 
candle.  He  was  using  an  excessive  amount  of 
current  and  generating  less  than  usual  because  of 
running  at  night,  starting  often,  and  running  slow 
to  observe  the  speed  laws.  Up  to  a  certain  point, 
the  amount  of  current  which  goes  into  the  battery 
is  increased  in  proportion  to  the  speed  of  the  car. 

Generators  are  constructed  so  that  they  will 
deliver  a  normal  charge  to  the  battery  for  normal 
running ;  they  must  not  be  constructed  so  they  will 
send  out  excessive  current,  or  they  will  overcharge 
the  battery,  and  that  is  harmful.  The  sun  sets 


126     Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

much- earlier  in  winter  and  the  cool  weather  makes 
it  necessary  to  use  the  starter  more.  In  warm 
weather  one  little  kick  will  start  the  car  off;  in 
cold  weather  it  takes  often  from  half  a  minute  to  a 
minute. f 

Most  engines  now  are  equipped  with  carburetor 
check  and  priming  devices  to  facilitate  starting 
when  the  engine  is  cold,  but  even  with  these  more 
current  is  consumed  in  starting  the  engine  than 
when  it  is  warm. 

Then,  too,  the  storage  battery  drops  off  in 
efficiency  as  the  temperature  is  lowered  and  will 
not  deliver  so  much  current  on  a  full  charge  as  at 
a  higher  temperature.  This  comes  at  a  time  when 
there  is  a  greater  call  on  the  battery,  and  where  a 
battery  fails  under  such  circumstances,  it  is  wise 
to  get  an  occasional  charge  to  help  out  the 
generator. 

It  is  becoming  the  practice  to  take  all  current 
for  lights,  ignition,  and  other  purposes  direct 
from  the  battery,  using  a  generator  to  recharge  it. 
Inside  of  a  year  at  the  most  the  bottom  of  the 
battery  will  become  filled  with  a  sediment  from 
the  plates.  This  causes  an  internal  short  circuit 
and  the  battery  will  discharge  itself  inside  instead 
of  outside.  At  least  once  a  year  a  battery  should 
be  taken  apart  and  the  sediment  be  cleaned  out. 


What's  the  Trouble  with  my  Battery?  127 

Some  generators  are  constructed  so  that  they 
can  be  adjusted  to  deliver  more  current  on  de- 
mand ;  that  is,  there  is  one  adjustment  for  summer 
and  one  for  winter  running.  Wherever  it  is 
possible  to  do  this  it  should  be  done.  Otherwise, 
when  a  battery  loses  voltage,  it  can  be  taken  off 
the  car  and  be  charged.  It  need  not  be  necessary 
to  leave  it  for  a  twenty-hour  charging  period;  if 
taken  soon  enough  it  can  be  charged  in  six  to 
ten  hours,  or,  when  the  car  is  laid  up  over  night. 
Two  nights  would  be  enough  at  any  rate. 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  in  self-starter  practice, 
everything  is  done  to  the  storage  battery  that 
formerly  was  included  in  the  list  of  battery 
' '  don'ts. ' '  On  account  of  the  exceptional  demands 
of  self-starters,  batteries  have  been  improved  so 
that  they  stand  this  to  some  extent;  but  the 
improvement  has  not  kept  pace  with  the  extra 
demand  put  upon  the  battery. 

Some  of  the  old  "don'ts"  are: 

You  should  not  charge  the  battery  at  a  high 
rate  when  completely  discharged. 

It  should  not  be  charged  at  a  high  rate  when 
almost  fully  charged. 

It  should  not  be  overcharged  too  often;  occa- 
sional overcharge  is  good,  but  not  too  often. 

It  should  not  be  discharged  at  a  very  high  rate. 


128     Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

Most  self-starters  are  of  the  two-unit  type; 
they  have  a  generator  for  recharging  the  battery 
and  a  motor  for  cranking  the  engine.  In  other 
self-starters  the  two  units  are  combined ;  the  same 
instrument,  when  current  is  fed  to  it  from  the 
battery,  kicks  off  the  motor  and  when  driven  by 
the  engine  acts  as  a  generator. 

When  self-starters  were  first  introduced  they 
had  all  sorts  of  devices  to  offset  the  high-current 
demand  and  regulators  and  cutouts  to  comply 
with  the  battery-makers'  directions  in  recharging. 
These  devices  were  complicated  and  could  not  be 
depended  upon,  and  consequently  were  discon- 
tinued, and  it  was  put  up  to  the  battery  to  stand 
the  abnormal  conditions.  The  battery  makers 
have  been  trying  to  offset  this  and  to  a  certain 
extent  have  succeeded,  but  as  it  is  directly  against 
former  practice — for  every  one  of  the  "don'ts"  is 
disregarded  in  self-starter  systems — the  makers 
have  not  been  able  to  rectify  conditions  entirely. 

On  account  of  these  conditions  the  life  of  a 
storage  battery  may  be  considered  to  be  about 
one  and  a  half  years,  and  if  it  lasts  as  long  as  that 
it  is  considered  to  have  done  its  work  and  to  be 
entitled  to  be  retired. 

But  if  your  battery  seems  to  fail  with  the 
coming  of  short  and  cool  days,  do  not  discard 


What's  the  Trouble  with  my  Battery?  129 

it  until  you  have  tried  having  it  recharged,  for 
possibly  you  have  simply  been  overworking  it 
and  not  feeding  it  enough  current  to  keep  it  in 
condition. 

9 


CHAPTER  XXI 

WHY  GEARS  STRIP 

SOME  of  the  most  unnecessary  and  expensive 
repairs  to  an  automobile  are  those  connected 
with  its  transmission.  It  is  not  only  exasperating, 
but  unnecessary  to  be  told  that  the  gears  of 
your  car  are  stripped,  or  that  the  teeth  are 
broken  so  that  smooth  running  is  impossible,  if 
indeed  the  car  can  be  run  at  all. 

It  is  not  in  the  permanent  mesh  gears,  where 
shaft  motion  is  turned  into  axle  motion,  that  the 
trouble  comes.  Properly  set  and  packed  the  rear 
axle  gears  never  should  make  trouble.  But  it  is  in 
the  shifting  gears  of  the  transmission,  where  gears 
come  to  mesh  at  varying  rates  of  speed,  and  with 
the  number  of  revolutions,  load,  and  several  other 
things  to  complicate  the  situation,  that  there  is 
wear  and  tear — largely  tear. 

If  an  automobile  could  run  at  an  unvarying 
rate  of  speed,  if  there  were  no  hills  which  require 
the  translation  of  speed  into  power,  or  if  the  engine 
130 


Why  Gears  Strip  131 

controls  alone  could  give  sufficient  speed  regula- 
tion to  cover  the  emergencies  constantly  arising, 
the  transmission  might  be  simplified  into  a  mere 
coupling  and  reverse.  But  simplify  as  you  will, 
there  must  be  provision  for  varying  speeds  and 
these  must  be  attained  while  the  car  is  in  motion, 
and  this  means  the  meshing  together  of  finely 
built  gears  revolving  so  fast  the  teeth  cannot  be 
seen. 

It  is  no  novelty  to  hear  a  grinding  or  clashing 
within  the  car  when  a  careless  chauffeur  starts,  or 
when  he  changes  from  one  speed  to  another.  If 
the  owner  knew  what  was  going  on  inside  to  make 
all  that  noise,  a  new  chauffeur  would  have  a  job 
quickly  and  there  would  be  laid  down  starting, 
speeding,  slowing  down,  and  stopping  rules  as 
stringent  as  those  of  the  traffic  policeman. 

The  illustration  gives  the  mechanism  of  a  simple 
transmission  gear  case.  The  engine  shaft  J  has 
on  the  end  a  gear  wheel  A,  and  on  the  face  of  the 
gear  are  four  engaging  teeth  I.  The  end  of  the 
shaft  J  is  hollow  and  in  this  revolves  one  end  of 
the  transmission  shaft  K,  which  is  square.  On  it 
are  two  gear  wheels  of  varying  size,  D  and  E,  one 
having,  say,  thirty  teeth  and  the  other  forty. 
The  smaller  is  yoked  to  the  larger  and  both  slide 
along  the  square  shaft  when  moved  by  a  lever. 


132     Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

The  gear  D  has  on  its  face  engaging  teeth  I, 
corresponding  to  those  on  the  engine  shaft  gear 
A,  and  when  the  two  are  engaged  the  transmission 
shaft  revolves  at  the  same  speed  as  the  engine 


A 

cturc* 


0 


shaft,  giving  the  highest  speed  of  which  the  car 
is  capable. 

To  provide  for  varying  speeds,  another  shaft  is 
suspended  in  the  transmission  case,  on  which  are 
other  gears.  If  gear  A  has  twenty  teeth,  B  will 
have,  say,  forty.  This  reduces  the  motion  of  the 
gear  shaft  to  one-half  that  of  the  engine  shaft. 
Farther  along  the  gear  shaft,  gear  F,  with  twenty 
teeth,  engages  gear  E  with  forty,  further  reducing 
the  speed,  so  that  the  transmission  shaft  revolves 
one-fourth  as  fast  as  the  engine  shaft,  making  the 
low  gear,  or  slowest  speed. 


Why  Gears  Strip  133 

When  the  car  is  standing,  of  course,  gears  E  and 
F  are  not  engaged,  but  the  engine  is  running  in 
neutral — that  is,  no  gear  on  the  transmission  shaft 
is  engaged,  gear  E  being  shifted  just  far  enough  to 
miss  gear  F.  To  start,  it  is  customary  to  discon- 
nect the  engine  and  move  the  lever  so  that  gears 
E  and  F  engage.  If  the  speed  of  the  engine  shaft 
be  600  r.p.m.  that  of  gear  F  would  be  300  r.p.m., 
or  6000  teeth  pass  a  given  point  per  minute 
(300  x  20) — something  of  a  buzz-saw  motion. 
Into  this  revolving  mass  of  teeth  the  forty  teeth 
of  gear  E,  which  is  at  rest,  must  penetrate  and 
mesh.  It  does  not  require  much  of  a  mechanic  to 
see  that  the  meshing  must  be  quite  perfect  or  there 
would  be  a  clash  and  grind  that  does  no  good  to 
delicate  machinery.  So  it  is  good  practice  to  allow 
enough  time  after  the  clutch  is  released  for  the 
moving  shaft  to  come  to  rest. 

Once  the  car  is  under  way  and  it  is  desired  to 
increase  the  speed,  the  lever  is  shoved  forward, 
moving  the  transmission  gears  forward  until 
gear  D  engages  gear  C.  These  are  the  same  size 
and  have,  say,  thirty  teeth  each.  But  they  are 
not  moving  at  the  same  speed.  Gear  C,  revolving 
at  300  r.p.m.  puts  9000  teeth  per  minute  past  the 
engaging  point,  while  gear  D,  moving  at  150  r.p.m. 
puts  just  4500  around  per  minute.  The  difference 


134     Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

of  4500  represents  the  possibilities  of  clashing  and 
breaking  or  stripping  the  gear.  The  wise  chauffeur 
just  at  the  instant  of  shifting  the  gear,  would 
throttle  down  his  engine  one-half  and  bring  the 
number  of  revolutions  of  the  gear  shaft  to  approxi- 
mately that  of  the  transmission  shaft,  which  is 
kept  in  motion  by  the  momentum  of  the  car.  He 
also  will  hesitate  in  the  shift — that  is,  st/p  for  an 
instant  in  neutral  before  completing  the  shift,  to 
allow  for  adjustment.  It  is  possible  in  this  way  to 
lessen  the  difference  in  teeth  speed.  If  it  were 
possible  to  make  both  gears  revolve  at  exactly  the 
same  speed  the  shift  would  be  noiseless  and  fric- 
tionless.  This  is  practically  impossible  in  actual 
running,  though  in  theory  it  can  be  done.  But 
they  may  be  brought  near  enough  to  minimize 
the  clash. 

In  shifting  to  high  speed  from  medium,  the 
engine  should  be  throttled  more  closely  and  the 
shift  lever  should  hesitate  again,  if  one  would 
avoid  the  thump  and  jerk  commonly  felt  when  the 
high  gear  is  thrown  in.  The  engaging  teeth  of 
gears  A  and  D  will  stand  a  sledge-hammer  blow, 
but  "constant  tapping  wears  away  the  hardest 
rock,"  you  know,  and  the  best  gears  made  wear 
and  break.  Besides  there  is  the  jar  to  engine  and 
car  to  consider.  Constant  jerking  and  jumping 


Why  Gears  Strip  135 

rack  the  mechanism,  chassis,  and  body  and  shorten 
the  life  of  each,  so  that  economy,  if  not  comfort, 
would  seem  to  dictate  care  by  the  driver. 

In  reversing  the  operation — that  is,  going  from 
high  to  medium  and  medium  to  low,  one  needs  to 
reverse  the  directions  given  for  increasing  speed. 
Still  assuming  the  engine  shaft  to  be  running  600 
r  p.m.,  gear  D  would  have  that  speed  and  would 
throw  18,000  teeth  per  minute  (600  x  30),  while 
gear  C,  as  before,  would  be  going  at  9000  teeth  per 
minute  (300  x  30).  It  would  therefore  be  wise  to 
stop  in  neutral,  engaging  the  clutch  to  speed  the 
engine  up,  and  then  release  the  clutch  before 
engaging  the  lower  gear,  bringing  gear  C  to  some- 
where near  the  speed  of  gear  D.  In  practice 
it  is  approximated  by  not  releasing  the  clutch 
fully  when  changing  to  lower  gear,  thus  preventing 
the  clutch  from  reducing  its  speed.  To  accom- 
plish this  speedily,  however,  the  car  speed  must 
be  reduced  considerably  before  attempting  to 
make  the  shift. 

Going  on  to  lowest  speed,  gear  E  would  now  be 
moving  at  300  r.p.m.  and  gear  F  at  300  r.p.m., 
but  gear  E's  forty  teeth  move  at  12,000  per  minute 
and  gear  F's  twenty  teeth  at  6000  p.m.,  to  correct 
which  one  should  speed  up  the  engine,  or  check 
the  car,  in  the  same  manner  as  just  described. 


136     Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

In  reversing,  to  back  the  car,  the  gear  opera- 
tion intensifies  the  problem.  In  the  illustration, 
gear  G  operates  gear  H  constantly,  the  action 
being  to  reverse  the  motion  in  the  latter,  and  when 
gear  E  engages  gear  H  to  reverse  the  motion  of  the 
transmission  shaft  and  thus  back  the  car.  In 
addition  to  the  difference  in  speed  and  variance  of 
teeth  revolutions,  there  is  added  the  contrary 
direction  of  the  two  gears  which  are  to  engage. 
To  throw  back  on  reverse  even  at  moderate  speed 
menaces  the  gears  and  shakes  things  up  uncom- 
fortably. Fortunately  it  is  almost  invariably 
necessary  to  fully  stop  the  car  before  reversing, 
and  necessity  of  caution  in  backing  prompts  very 
low  speed  throughout  the  operation. 

Care  in  operating  the  gears  will  add  much  to  the 
life  of  the  car  and  to  the  pleasure  of  the  owner,  and 
chauffeurs  should  be  instructed  in  the  proper 
handling  of  the  speed  and  reverse  levers.  It 
racks  one's  nerves  when  riding  to  hear  gears 
clash  and  grind  on  a  passing  car,  and  many  of  the 
taxis  seem  to  have  this  trouble. 

The  chauffeurs  run  the  cars  on  a  slap-dash 
method  and  disregard  of  the  gears  is  a  part  of  it 
all,  but  it  costs  the  owner  much  in  upkeep  and 
renewals. 


CHAPTER  XXII 

THE    GEAR- SHIFTING    BUGABOO 

PROBABLY  the  chief  bugaboo  of  the  new  owner 
is  gear  shifting.  This  is  evident  from  the  fact  that 
the  average  motor-driving  novice  will  leave  the 
gear  in  high  when  the  car  is  slowed  down  prac- 
tically to  a  standstill,  and  make  the  engine  labor 
in  order  to  pick  up  speed  again,  rather  than  run 
the  risk  of  making  a  noisy  shift.  He  has  learned 
from  his  brief  experience  that,  in  addition  to  the 
noise  he  creates,  he  does  not  mesh  the  gears  any- 
way, and  has  to  start  off  from  a  standstill.  Con- 
sequently he  does  not  shift  gears,  but  makes  the 
engine  start  on  high-speed  gear. 

This,  no  doubt,  is  the  cause  in  a  large  measure 
of  the  great  popularity  of  six-,  eight-,  and  twelve- 
cylinder  engines,  since  with  motors  of  this  type 
the  gear  shift  is  not  so  necessary.  There  is  a 
greater  range  of  speed;  a  greater  flexibility  and 
power  may  be  delivered  at  lower  speed.  Even 
the  manufacturers  of  four-cylinder  engines  have 
137 


138     Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

designed  their  motors  for  higher  speed  with'  greater 
gear  reduction,  which  makes  it  easier  for  the 
engine  to  pick  up  the  load  from  the  very  lowest 
speed,  consequently  making  the  car  more  popular 
with  the  prospective  owner. 

Inventors  are  continually  at  work  trying  to 
devise  simple  methods  of  bringing  about  an  ad- 
justment of  load  to  speed  without  actually  sliding 
the  gears  into  mesh,  and  one  very  popular  type  of 
car  is  arranged  so  that  no  sliding  of  gears  is  neces- 
sary, and  another  one  or  two  leave  out  the  gears 
entirely. 

However,  the  three-speed  sliding-gear  trans- 
mission seems  to  be  the  most  satisfactory,  con- 
sidered from  all  standpoints,  including  cost  of 
manufacture,  ease  of  repair  and  care  required, 
consequently  the  owner  should  learn  at  once  how 
to  manipulate  the  gear  lever  with  a  minimum 
of  noise,  which  is  largely  a  matter  of  practice. 

If  a  man  should  get  into  a  strange  car  he  could 
hardly  be  expected  to  shift  the  gears  noiselessly 
under  all  conditions;  but  a  man  who  owns  a  car 
and  drives  it  should  very  quickly  learn  the 
peculiarities  of  that  particular  car  and  be  able  to 
make  the  required  gear  shifts  with  ease  and 
confidence. 

Shifting  gears  at  the  proper  time  saves  racking 


The  Gear-Shifting  Bugaboo          139 

the  entire  mechanism  of  the  car.  It  usually  is 
not  very  difficult  in  the  average  car  to  shift  to  a 
higher  gear,  although  some  car  owners  manage 
to  stir  up  considerable  noise  in  doing  this.  One 
of  the  sources  of  trouble  in  this  respect  is  a  drag- 
ging clutch.  But  most  cars  now  are  equipped  with 
a  clutch  brake,  and  by  depressing  the  pedal  far 
enough  this  brake  is  brought  into  play  and  over- 
comes the  tendency  to  drag. 

Usually  the  best  results  can  be  obtained  in 
shifting  from  first  to  second  gear  by  speeding  the 
car  up  a  very  little  on  first,  shifting  out  of  first  and 
hesitating  an  instant  in  neutral  and  then  shifting 
into  second.  Unless  the  clutch-brake  action  is 
harsh  the  clutch  pedal  should  be  depressed  all  the 
way  in  making  this  shift.  The  procedure  is  the 
same  in  shifting  from  second  to  third.  Care 
should  be  exercised,  however,  not  to  speed  the 
car  up  too  much  before  shifting,  and  the  throttle 
should  be  in  closed  position  and  the  accelerator 
pedal  released  during  the  time  of  the  shift. 

Changing  from  high  to  a  lower  gear  is  where  the 
most  of  the  trouble  is  experienced  and  this  is 
usually  due  to  the  fact  that  the  car  is  being  driven 
at  perhaps  twenty-five  to  thirty  miles  an  hour  and 
the  driver  for  some  reason  or  other  thinks  he  is 
going  to  have  use  for  the  second  speed.  Im- 


140     Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

mediately  he  proceeds  to  shift ;  the  result  is  audible 
for  half  a  mile.  Usually  no  difficulty  would  be 
experienced  in  shifting  to  a  lower  gear  if  the  car 
speed  is  diminished  sufficiently.  As  a  general  rule, 
when  shifting  to  a  lower  gear  the  speed  of  the 
car  should  be  a  little  less  than  when  shifting  to 
a  higher,  between  the  same  relative  gears. 

In  ordinary  driving  the  gear  need  not  be  shifted 
to  first  speed  except  when  the  car  is  brought  to  a 
standstill  and  on  a  level  road  the  second-speed 
gear  need  not  be  employed  until  a  speed  as  low  as 
five  to  ten  miles  an  hour  is  reached.  The  gear 
should  be  shifted  when  the  car  speed  has  been 
decreased  to  this  extent,  and  the  driver  should 
guard  against  shifting  before  slowing  down  simply 
because  his  judgment  tells  him  he  is  going  to  have 
to  use  a  lower  gear,  if  he  desires  to  make  a  silent 
shift.  There  is  a  tendency  to  anticipate  the 
necessity  and  then  to  do  it  immediately  and  before 
it  is  required;  the  consequence  is  noise. 

When  climbing  steep  hills  it  is  desirable  to 
make  the  shift  at  a  little  higher  car  speed  than  on 
the  level,  otherwise  the  car  may  lose  so  much 
momentum  during  the  operation  that  the  engine 
will  be  unable  to  pick  up  the  load  and  will  stall. 
This  is  a  rather  difficult  situation  which  needs 
special  handling. 


The  Gear-Shifting  Bugaboo          141 

In  a  great  many  cases  a  silent  shift  may  be 
made  on  a  hill  by  leaving  the  throttle  slightly 
open  so  that  the  engine  speed  will  increase  when 
the  clutch  is  released  and  make  a  very  quick  shift 
with  the  clutch  but  partly  released. 

After  the  driver  becomes  a  little  experienced  he 
may  shift  from  third  to  second  without  sound  at 
practically  any  car  speed  that  the  engine  is  able  to 
deliver  on  second  gear.  This  may  even  be  found 
of  value  when  climbing  steep  hills  and  in  antici- 
pating necessary  shifts.  To  make  this  shift  at 
high  speed,  release  the  clutch,  shift  gear  lever  to 
neutral  notch,  engage  clutch,  and  accelerate 
engine  speed  to  a  point  which  experience  tells  you 
is  the  correct  engine  speed  for  second  gear  at  that 
car  speed,  disengage  clutch  and  shift  into  second. 
This  is  a  matter  for  experiment  and  experience. 

In  starting  the  car  grinding  of  the  gears  occurs 
because  the  owner  has  not  patience  to  wait  the 
five  seconds  that  may  be  necessary  for  the  clutch 
to  stop  spinning  before  meshing  the  gears. 

Another  source  of  annoyance  which  often  leads 
up  to  a  noisy  gear  change,  comes  from  the  fact 
that  occasionally  it  is  not  possible  to  bring  the 
first-speed  gears  into  mesh  when  about  to  start 
the  car.  This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  gear  teeth 
line  up  so  that  the  gears  cannot  be  slid  into  mesh. 


142     Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

This  may  be  overcome  by  leaving  the  lever  in 
neutral,  engaging  the  clutch  so  that  one  gear  will 
spin,  and  then  disengage  the  clutch  again  before 
shifting  the  lever.  It  may  need  one  or  two  repeti- 
tions of  this  before  accomplishing  the  desired 
result,  but  a  little  patience  will  save  strain  on  the 
gear  and  a  minimum  of  noise  in  shifting. 

A  noiseless  shift  cannot  be  made  from  first  to 
reverse  or  reverse  to  first  unless  the  car  is  at  a 
standstill. 


CHAPTER    XXIII 

THE   MUFFLER 

MUCH  despised,  detested  by  many  automobile 
operators  and  neglected  by  almost  every  chauffeur, 
and  even  "cut  out"  altogether  when  the  traffic 
policeman  is  not  around,  the  muffler  plainly  ought 
not  to  be  so  treated.  It  is  deserving  of  careful 
consideration  every  once  in  a  while,  if  the  owner 
cares  much  for  efficiency  and  economy  in  operation. 

The  muffler  is  located  under  the  car,  and  being 
out  of  sight  is  usually  out  of  mind.  It  is  therefore 
often  neglected  or  misused.  And  yet  it  ought  not 
to  be.  The  muffler  is  placed  on  the  end  of  the 
exhaust  pipe,  and  its  sole  purpose  is  to  silence  the 
exhaust  of  the  engine  so  that  the  driver  of  an 
automobile  while  taking  pleasure  himself  does  not 
wholly  deprive  others  of  it. 

Let  us  consider  the  use  of  the  muffler.     The 

exhaust  valve  opens  while  the  burned  gas  is  still 

under  a  pressure  of  from  twenty-five  to  thirty 

pounds  per  square  inch.     If  this  were  exhausted 

143 


144     Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

directly  into  the  air  the  resulting  noise  would 
stifle  conversation  in  the  car,  annoy  everybody 
along  the  street,  and  quickly  get  the  driver  into 
trouble  with  the  police.  The  muffler  prevents  all 
this.  It  provides  a  chamber  in  which  these  exhaust 
gases  may  expand  and  cool  somewhat  and  at  the 
same  time  breaks  up  the  pressure  by  allowing  it  to 
leak  out  slowly  through  a  number  of  very  small 
holes,  instead  of  letting  it  loose  in  one  "big 
noise." 

In  the  early  history  of  the  automobile,  mufflers 
were  not  used  and  everybody  for  blocks  around 
knew  when  an  auto  was  coming.  As  the  auto- 
mobiles increased  in  number  this  became  a  nui- 
sance and  was  stopped  by  law.  Then  they  sought 
— indeed  had  been  seeking — a  means  of  stifling 
the  sound.  In  the  early  muffler  there  was  trouble 
because  the  gas  would  back  up  in  the  cylinder  and 
decrease  the  power  of  the  motor.  It  was  thought 
there  was  no  way  to  decrease  the  sound  without 
decreasing  the  power;  therefore  the  manufacturers 
devised  a  valve  to  "cut  out"  the  muffler  on  the 
car  whenever  extra  power  was  desired. 

Sometimes  the  back  pressure  was  so  great  as  to 
interfere  when  driving  through  heavy  roads  or  up 
hills.  The  "cut-out"  let  the  gas  exhaust  directly 
into  the  air  instead  of  going  through  the  muffler. 


The  Muffler  145 

At  the  present  time  nearly  every  city  has  a  law 
prohibiting  the  use  of  "cut-outs." 

As  a  matter  of  fact  those  well  posted  on  auto- 
mobile engines  understand  to-day  that  the  "cut- 
out" is  absolutely  unnecessary  on  a  modern  car 
if  the  muffler  is  kept  in  proper  condition.  Muffler 
manufacturers  have  been  able  to  produce  a  design 
with  which  there  is  no  back  pressure  at  all.  For 
this  reason  manufacturers  discourage  the  use  of 
the  "cut-out"  on  their  cars  and  some  of  them  will 
no  longer  install  one  except  as  an  "extra." 

The  average  driver,  however,  does  not  know  that 
his  muffler  needs  as  careful  attention  as  any  other 
part  of  the  mechanism  and  so  he  neglects  it.  In 
these  days  of  noiseless  cars  it  requires  a  great 
number  of  very  small  holes  inside  the  muffler. 
These  become  clogged  with  soot  or  carbon  from 
the  exhaust.  The  deposit  collects  very  rapidly, 
especially  when  the  grade  of  oil  used  is  poor  or 
too  much  oil  is  used.  It  also  results  when 
the  carburetor  is  adjusted  to  give  too  rich  a 
mixture. 

When  these  small  openings  become  clogged, 
the  exhaust  gases  cannot  escape  readily  and 
naturally  the  cylinder  of  the  engine  is  not  cleaned 
at  the  exhaust  stroke.  Result:  It  is  impossible 
to  bring  in  a  full  cylinder  of  new  gas  on  the  next 


146     Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

intake  stroke.  There  is  not  a  full  charge  to  explode 
and  this  means  a  loss  of  power  to  the  engine. 

Cases  are  known  where  the  throttle  was  opened 
wide  without  any  increase  in  power.  Trying  to 
find  out  what  the  matter  was  the  driver  opened 
the  "cut-out"  and  this  caused  the  machine  to 
accelerate  very  rapidly. 

In  other  cases  when  the  engine  was  cranked, 
there  would  be  a  few  explosions,  a  sputter  and  a 
stop,  and  the  reason  was  that  the  muffler  was  so 
clogged  that  it  was  impossible  to  exhaust  the  gas 
from  these  few  explosions,  the  cylinder  remained 
full  of  burned  gas,  and,  of  course,  could  not  take 
in  a  further  supply.  These,  of  course,  are  extreme 
cases,  but  the  writer  had  this  experience  not  long 
ago: 

He  was  riding  in  a  car  that  could  hardly  make 
headway  against  a  strong  wind  blowing.  This 
meant  frequent  use  of  the  second-speed  gear, 
which  in  itself  causes  an  undue  use  of  gasoline. 
He  found  on  experimenting  that  the  muffler  "cut- 
out" pedal  could  be  used  in  place  of  the  accelera- 
tor pedal;  that  is,  when  the  muffler  "cut-out"  was 
open  the  engine  had  considerable  more  power  and 
immediately  speeded  up.  In  fact,  he  kept  the 
"cut-out"  open  most  of  the  way  home  and  had  no 
more  trouble  in  bucking  the  headwind.  The 


The  Muffler  147 

experience  led  to  the  discovery  that  the  muffler 
was  almost  totally  clogged  with  carbon. 

Of  course,  where  the  engine  is  stopped  or  there 
is  a  decided  decrease  in  power,  the  owner  will 
hunt  for  the  trouble,  and  find  it,  perhaps,  in  the 
muffler.  He  might  not  notice  less  serious  cases 
where,  while  the  muffler  is  somewhat  clogged, 
it  does  not  decrease  the  power  strikingly;  but 
even  in  these  less  serious  cases  it  will  often  be 
found  that  the  power  of  the  motor  may  be  materi- 
ally increased  by  having  the  muffler  cleaned. 
Yet  it  is  seldom  done,  even  when  the  car  is 
supposed  to  be  overhauled  completely.  Many 
drivers  seem  to  think  the  muffler  can  take  care  of 
itself.  In  looking  over  the  inspection  card  of  a 
well-known  make  of  car  it  was  found  that  no 
provision  was  made  for  even  looking  at  the  muffler. 
The  service-station  inspection  orders  contain  no 
mention  of  the  muffler. 

There  is  still  another  cause  of  the  clogging  of 
the  muffler  with  carbon,  and  that  is  the  practice 
of  putting  kerosene  in  the  cylinders  to  clean  them. 
The  kerosene  cleans  the  carbon  from  the  cylinder 
walls  and  that  is  what  makes  the  trouble,  for  it  is 
exhausted  right  into  the  muffler.  Some  drivers 
understand  this  and  when  using  kerosene  for  this 
purpose  open  the  muffler  "cut-out";  this  allows 


148     Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

the  discharge  of  the  greater  part  of  the  carbon 
into  the  air,  but  even  then  some  of  it  finds  its 
way  into  the  muffler  and  in  time  makes  trouble. 

A  muffler  of  modern  design,  if  kept  clean, 
needs  no  "cut-out"  arrangement,  but  if  it  becomes 
clogged  it  is  necessary  to  use  a  "cut-out "  when  the 
full  power  of  the  engine  is  needed.  The  conse- 
quence may  be  a  trip  to  the  police  station  and 
then  to  the  court  and  then  a  fine  to  be  paid.  It  is 
evident,  therefore,  that  if  one  wishes  to  get  power 
out  of  his  car  on  an  economical  basis  and  wishes 
to  escape  fines,  he  should  look  after  his  muffler. 

Since  instruction  books,  and  even  service-station 
inspection  charts  do  not  say  much  about  the 
muffler,  and  since  it  is  evident  that  it  has  an 
important  part  in  the  operation  of  the  car,  where 
the  owner  does  not  find  sufficient  information 
concerning  it  from  the  instruction  books  furnished 
him,  he  would  better  ask  the  agency  to  furnish 
him  a  special  muffler  pamphlet,  which  will  show 
its  construction  and  care. 


CHAPTER  XXIV 

YOUR   BEARINGS 

EVER  stop  to  count  up  how  many  bearings  there 
are  about  your  car?  If  you  haven't,  you  are 
likely  to  lose  your  bearings  while  you  hunt  for  the 
several  hundred  bearing  points  of  the  modern 
automobile. 

A  bearing  is  a  support  for  a  moving  member,  so 
designed  as  to  minimize  friction  and  receive  wear, 
and  to  permit  of  fine  adjustment. 

There  are  many  typec  of  bearings,  some  in 
which  the  metals  are  selected  with  the  idea  of  ob- 
taining strength  rather  than  non-friction  qualities ; 
others  have  strong  metal  shells  lined  with  a  com- 
paratively soft  non-friction  metal.  In  these  bear- 
ings moving  members  slide  over  each  other. 

In  addition  to  this  we  have  the  so-called  anti- 
friction bearings,  in  which  balls,  or  straight,  taper, 
or  helical  rollers  are  used,  giving  a  rolling  rather 
than  a  sliding  contact. 

On  the  engine  alone  there  are  102  bearings. 
149 


150     Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

This  is  figured  on  the  average  six-cylinder  motor; 
some  of  them  have  more  than  double  the  number. 
There  are,  for  instance,  the  following: 

Six  cylinders,  6  wrist-pin  bearings,  6  crank-pin 
bearings,  4  main,  3  cam  shaft,  12  cam,  12  push 
rod,  12  valve  stem,  2  fan,  2  water  pump,  8  ignition, 
6  spark  control,  6  carbure-tor  control,  6  carburetor, 
3  oil  pump,  4  self-starter,  and  4  self-starter  linkage 
bearings;  total,  102. 

The  first  named,  cylinder  and  piston,  not  gener- 
ally termed  bearings,  are  usually  of  cast  iron, 
which  gives  comparatively  long  wear  and  in  which 
the  friction  is  not  great  if  well  lubricated.  When 
wear  does  occur  at  this  point  it  is  necessary  to 
rebore  and  have  larger  pistons  fitted. 

The  wrist-pin  bearings  usually  are  in  the  form 
of  a  bronze  shell,  called  a  bushing,  surrounding 
the  wrist  pin;  when  wear  occurs  it  is  necessary  to 
drive  out  the  bushing  and  replace  with  a  new  one 
which  fits. 

The  crank-pin  bearings  are  usually  in  halves, 
the  metal  babbitt  or  bronze,  surrounded  by  a  steel 
strap  or  casing.  When  wear  occurs,  the  adjust- 
ment is  made  by  taking  out  thin  sheets  of  metal, 
called  shims,  which  allow  the  halves  to  be  brought 
closer  together.  The  main  crank-shaft  bearings 
are  of  the  same  type. 


Your  Bearings  151 

The  cam-shaft  bearings  are  usually  in  bushing 
form,  which  must  be  replaced  with  new  ones  when 
they  become  worn.  The  cam-follower  bearings 
may  be  just  flat  plates  resting  directly  upon  the 
cam,  or  rollers  running  on  a  pin  in  the  valve  push 
rod.  Wear  in  these  parts  would  usually  be  com- 
pensated for  by  adjusting  screws  on  the  valve 
push  rods. 

The  push-rod  guides  are  sometimes  made  of 
cast  iron  or  other  metal,  with  babbitt  or  bronze 
shell  in  bushing  form,  and  would  require  replace- 
ment when  worn. 

The  oil-pump  bearings  consist  of  a  plunger 
working  in  a  small  cylinder,  with  one  end  bearing 
against  a  cam,  or  a  pair  of  gears  driven  from  the 
cam  shaft.  These  bearings,  being  perfectly  lubri- 
cated, seldom  or  never  require  adjustment. 

All  of  the  bearings  considered  so  far  are  cared 
for  by  the  lubricating  system  of  the  engine,  which 
starts  when  the  engine  starts  to  run,  and  as  long 
as  oil  is  kept  in  the  engine  they  are  quite  certain 
to  be  taken  care  of,  barring  accidental  stoppage  of 
the  oil  lead. 

The  fan  usually  runs  on  ball  bearings  which 
are  lubricated  with  a  squirt  can;  being  usually 
of  the  cup  and  cone  type,  they  are  adjusted  by 
tightening  the  cone.  The  water-pump  bearings 


152     Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

are  lubricated  by  compression  grease  cups;  when 
the  bearings  become  badly  worn  it  is  necessary 
to  drive  out  the  bushings  and  replace  them; 
generally  the  shaft  also  will  need  replacing.  When 
this  shaft  becomes  worn  out  of  round,  no  amount 
of  tightening  of  the  stuffing  box  will  prevent  water 
from  leaking  out. 

The  valve-stem  guides  are  sometimes  bushings, 
but  more  usually  are  holes  bored  through  the 
cylinder  casting.  In  the  former  case,  when  wear 
occurs  the  bushing  may  be  driven  out  and  a  new 
one,  with  new  valve,  installed;  in  the  latter  case, 
the  holes  must  be  reamed  true  and  larger,  and 
valves  with  larger  stems  be  inserted. 

In  the  ignition  system  ball  bearings  usually  are 
employed,  with  or  without  means  of  adjustment. 
These  are  lubricated  with  an  oil  can  or  packed  in 
grease.  There  is  one  bearing  of  the  ignition 
system  which  is  unique  in  that  some  manufacturers 
advise  keeping  it  free  of  lubricating  substance  of 
any  kind.  This  is  the  rocker  arm  of  the  interrup- 
ter on  certain  makes  of  magnetos.  Other  forms 
of  interrupters  are  so  constructed  that  lubrication 
is  advisable. 

The  carburetor  air-valve  bearing  operates 
better  if  not  lubricated,  but  does  wear  and  need 
replacing  at  times.  The  throttle  bearings  may  be 


Your  Bearings  153 

lubricated  and  would  certainly  wear  longer  if  this 
were  done.  When  they  do  wear  air  is  admitted 
which  is  noticeable  at  low  engine  speed,  causing 
skipping  and  irregular  running.  Then  the  holes 
in  the  casting  must  be  enlarged  and  larger  shaft 
inserted. 

The  throttle  and  spark-control  linkage  have  a 
number  of  bearings,  which  may  be  of  the  steel 
ball  and  socket  type,  or  a  wire  bent  to  fit  in  an  eye. 
These  pins  should  be  frequently  lubricated  with  a 
squirt  can.  Usually  they  are  not  adjustable,  so 
that  parts  must  be  replaced  when  they  become 
badly  worn. 

The  self-starter  motor  and  .generator  are  usually 
equipped  with  ball  bearings  and  are  lubricated 
with  a  squirt  can.  Both  the  motor  and  generator 
have  a  copper  commutator  on  which  carbon 
brushes  bear.  These  are  not  bearings,  strictly 
speaking,  but  they  do  require  a  very  slight  trace 
of  oil  if  the  brushes  have  not  been  soaked  in  oil. 
The  commutator  becomes  worn  occasionally  and 
must  be  smoothed  up  with  fine  sand  paper,  or,  if 
badly  worn,  must  be  removed  and  trued  in  a 
lathe. 

The  other  principal  bearings  throughout  the 
car  are  usually  of  ball  or  roller  type,  which  may  or 
may  not  be  adjustable.  Usually  the  directions 


154     Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

for  the  care  and  replacement  are  given  in  the 
manufacturer's  instruction  book. 

In  the  steering  gear  there  is  a  plain  bronze 
bearing  or  bushing  in  which  the  shaft  is  set  out  of 
center,  so  that  when  wear  occurs  by  twisting  the 
bushing,  the  sector  of  the  steering  gear  may  be 
thrown  deeper  into  mesh  with  the  worm  and  take 
up  the  play. 

In  the  transmission  gear,  in  which  all  other 
bearings  are  of  the  ball  or  roller  type,  there  will  be 
found  often  a  plain  bearing  on  the  forward  end  of 
the  square  or  fluted  shaft  called  the  pilot-shaft 
bearing.  This  is  one  weak  point  in  many  other- 
wise satisfactory  transmissions.  When  this  bear- 
ing wears,  the  operation  becomes  noisy  and  the 
gears  are  difficult  to  shift.  The  transmission  must 
be  disassembled,  the  bushing  withdrawn  and  a 
new  one  pressed  in. 

The  steering-gear  linkage  bearings  are  usually 
of  the  ball  and  socket  type,  self-adjusting  by 
means  of  springs.  Steering  knuckle  bearings  are 
usually  bushings  which  may  be  driven  out  and 
replaced  when  wear  occurs.  It  usually  is  necessary 
to  replace  the  pins  at  the  same  time. 

The  universal  joints  of  the  propeller  shaft 
become  very  noisy  when  the  bearings  are  worn. 
In  modern  construction  these  bearings  are  in  the 


Your  Bearings  155 

form  of  bushings  which  may  be  replaced  at  small 
expense.  The  brake  linkage  has  many  bearings, 
which  are  clevis  and  pin.  These  are  non-adjust- 
able, and  unfortunately  are  not  often  lubricated. 
When  wear  occurs  the  holes  may  be  drilled  larger 
and  larger  pins  be  inserted,  or  the  parts  may  be 
replaced  entirely. 

Of  course  there  are  scores  of  other  bearings  in 
other  parts  of  the  chassis,  that  with  ordinary  care 
last  the  life  of  the  car.  The  lubrication  and 
adjustment  are  usually  given  in  detail  in  the 
manufacturer's  book  of  instructions  and  need  no 
special  caution  other  than  to  advise  following 
what  is  there  printed. 


CHAPTER  XXV 

DRIVING   THE    CAR 

IT  takes  more  than  a  knowledge  of  certain 
small  levers  and  pedals  and  a  deftness  in  manipu- 
lating clutch  and  brakes  and  gear  shifts  and 
steering  wheel,  to  make  an  automobile  driver. 
Because  of  this  fact  the  Automobile  School  of 
the  West  Side  Young  Men's  Christian  Associa- 
tion, in  New  York  City,  has  formulated  a  set  of 
instructions  to  its  students  for  the  road  lessons, 
which  are  about  the  most  complete,  yet  concise,  so 
far  published.  They  are  copyrighted  and  published 
by  permission.  It  may  emphasize  the  foregoing 
chapter  to  first  quote  the  introductory  paragraph 
which  otherwise  would  have  been  omitted. 

The  following  applies  particularly  to  the  cars 
used  in  the  school.  Slight  variations  may  be 
found  on  other  machines,  so  it  is  well  to  get  an 
instruction  book  from  the  manufacturers  of  the 
car  you  expect  to  operate  and  follow  their  instruc- 
tions closely. 

156 


Driving  the  Car  157 

Before  Leaving  the  Garage — See  that  there  is 
sufficient  gasoline  and  oil  in  the  tanks  to  carry  you 
the  distance  you  wish  to  go.  Examine  the  radiator 
or  tank  to  see  that  it  is  full  of  water.  Have  suf- 
ficient air  in  the  tires.  All  grease  cups  should  be 
filled  and  turned  down  properly.  If  batteries  only 
are  used,  two  should  be  carried,  and  one  of  them 
fully  charged.  If  you  are  carrying  only  one  battery, 
be  sure  that  it  is  sufficiently  charged  to  make  the 
desired  run.  Have  on  the  car  at  least  one  extra 
shoe  and  three  extra  tubes,  with  the  ordinary  equip- 
ment of  tire  pump,  jack,  oil  gun,  tire  tools,  tire 
patches  and  cement,  and  the  regular  kit  of  other 
tools.  A  set  of  non-skid  chains  will  be  found  very 
useful  on  wet  days;  in  fact  it  is  not  safe  to  run 
without  them  on  wet  asphalt.  They  should  not 
be  used  however  any  more  than  is  necessary,  as 
they  wear  the  tires  excessively.  A  couple  of  extra 
spark  plugs  should  be  carried  to  save  the  trouble  of 
cleaning  a  short  circuited  one  on  the  road. 

Starting  Crank — In  a  gasoline  automobile,  it  is 
found  that  the  motor  must  draw  a  supply  of  gas 
into  the  cylinder  and  compress  it  before  this  charge 
can  be  ignited  to  expand  and  give  power.  It  is 
therefore  necessary  to  have  some  means  of  turning 
the  engine  over  to  accomplish  this.  The  starting 
crank  placed  usually  on  the  front  of  the  machine, 
just  in  front  of  the  radiator  and  between  the  front 
spring  horns,  is  for  this  purpose.  It  is  operated,  as 
a  rule,  with  the  right  hand,  and  is  rotated  clock- 
wise (the  direction  the  hands  of  a  clock  travel). 
When  there  is  a  self-starter  provided,  the  starting 
crank  is  carried  in  the  tool  box,  and  is  used  only 
when  the  starter  will  not  operate. 


158     Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

Starting  Pedal — The  starting  pedal  or  button  may 
generally  be  found  somewhere  on  the  floor  board. 
Pressing  on  it  connects  an  electric  motor  to  the  crank 
shaft  of  the  engine  and  closes  a  switch  that  allows 
current  from  the  storage  battery  to  flow  to  the 
motor  and  crank  the  engine.  This  takes  the  place 
of  the  hand-starting  crank. 

Clutch  Pedal — It  is  quite  often  desirable  to  run 
the  engine  without  moving  the  car,  and  it  will  also 
be  found  necessary  at  times  to  bring  into  mesh 
different  gears  so  that  more  power  or  speed  may  be 
obtained.  A  clutch  is,  therefore,  placed  between  the 
engine  and  the  rear  wheels.  It  is  controlled  by 
means  of  a  pedal  placed  just  back  of  the  dash. 
The  clutch  is  released  by  pressing  on  this  pedal 
with  the  left  foot,  and  when  released  the  engine 
will  continue  to  run,  but  will  not  deliver  power  to 
the  driving  wheels.  When  the  pressure  of  the  left 
foot  is  released  from  the  pedal,  the  clutch  will 
become  engaged  automatically  by  means  of  a  stiff 
spring  and  the  car  will  move  forward  or  backward, 
according  to  which  gears  are  in  mesh.  If  the 
gears  are  in  the  neutral  position,  however,  power 
will  not  be  applied  to  the  car  when  the  clutch  is 
engaged.  The  clutch  must  be  released  every  time 
the  gear-shifting  lever  is  moved  and  whenever  the 
brake  is  applied. 

Remember,  it  is  depressing  or  pushing  this  pedal 
that  overcomes  the  tension  of  the  spring  and  releases 
the  clutch,  and  when  no  pressure  is  applied  to  the 
pedal,  the  clutch  is  engaged. 

The  Running-Brake  Pedal — The  running  brake  is 
used  for  bringing  the  car  to  a  standstill.  It  is 
operated  by  means  of  a  pedal  placed  just  back  of  the 


Driving  the  Car  159 

dash  and  to  the  right  of  the  clutch  pedal.  To  apply 
the  brake,  first  release  the  clutch  by  pushing  on  the 
clutch  pedal,  then  push  down  or  forward  on  the 
brake  pedal  with  the  right  foot  gently  but  firmly 
until  the  car  is  stopped.  After  removing  the  foot 
from  the  brake  pedal  the  brake  will  be  released 
automatically  by  means  of  a  spring.  Use  the  brake 
gently  to  save  discomfort  to  the  passengers,  wear 
on  tires  and  the  machine  in  general.  Do  not  run 
close  to  the  point  where  the  stop  is  to  be  made  and 
then  jam  the  brake  on  hard,  but  begin  to  apply  it 
early  and  bring  the  car  to  a  standstill  gradually. 

The  Emergency-Brake  Lever — The  emergency 
brakes  are  used  chiefly  after  the  car  has  been  stopped 
and  the  operator  wishes  to  leave  it.  They  are 
applied  by  means  of  a  lever  operated  by  the  right 
hand.  This  lever  is  usually  placed  just  forward 
and  to  the  right  of  the  driver's  seat.  It  is  fitted 
with  a  spring  latch  and  when  applied  will  lock  on, 
and  so  is  very  convenient  in  stopping  on  a  hill  or 
when  the  car  is  left  standing  at  the  curb.  The 
brake  is  applied  by  pulling  back  the  lever.  This 
brake  can  be  used  alone  or  in  connection  with  the 
running  brake  for  quick  stops  when  necessary,  but 
it  should  not  be  used  for  ordinary  stopping  as  it  is 
usually  not  designed  for  such  work. 

Gear-Shifting  Lever — This  lever  is  usually  placed 
forward  and  to  the  right  of  the  operator's  seat,  and 
to  the  left  of  the  emergency-brake  lever.  It  is 
operated  with  the  right  hand.  By  shifting  this 
lever  which  engages  different  sets  of  gears,  the 
machine  may  be  made  to  go  forward  at  different 
speeds  while  the  engine  turns  at  a  practically  uni- 
form speed.  It  also  controls  the  reverse  gear. 


160     Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

When  the  car  is  standing,  the  lever  should  be  left 
in  neutral  position.  When  in  this  position,  3ven 
if  the  clutch  is  engaged,  the  machine  will  not  move. 
To  start  the  car,  release  emergency  brake,  release 
the  clutch  with  left  foot,  grasp  the  gear-shifting  lever 
with  the  right  hand  and  shift  from  the  neutral  posi- 
tion to  the  first  speed  notch,  accelerate  slightly,  then 
allow  the  clutch  to  engage  slowly  and  the  car  will 
start.  After  the  car  has  started,  release  the  clutch 
again  and  shift  the  gear  lever  to  the  second  speed 
notch  and  engage  the  clutch  quickly  but  gently. 
Repeat  this  operation  for  third  and  fourth  speeds. 
Always  release  clutch  when  shifting  this  lever. 
Whenever  the  car  is  brought  to  a  standstill,  put  the 
lever  in  the  neutral  position  before  applying  emer- 
gency brake. 

Accelerator  Pedal — This  pedal  operates  the 
throttle  on  the  carburetor  and  regulates  the  amount 
of  gas  going  to  the  engine  and  thus  controls  the 
power  which  the  motor  develops.  It  is  sometimes 
placed  between  the  clutch  and  brake  pedals,  but 
usually  to  the  right  of  the  brake  pedal  and  is  operated 
by  the  right  foot.  More  gas  is  permitted  to  enter 
the  cylinders  and  therefore  more  power  is  obtained 
by  pressing  on  it,  and  when  released  the  throttle 
will  be  returned  to  its  minimum  position  by  means 
of  a  spring.  Push  on  the  pedal  very  slowly,  for 
a  slight  movement  greatly  increases  the  power 
developed  by  the  motor  and  a  too  sudden  applica- 
tion of  power  will  strain  the  whole  machine.  It 
should  be  pushed  slightly  when  the  clutch  is  en- 
gaged to  increase  the  power  of  the  motor,  and 
should  be  released  when  the  clutch  is  disengaged,  so 
that  the  engine  will  not  race. 


Driving  the  Car  161 

The  Throttle  Lever — This  lever  controls  the 
throttle  on  the  carburetor  the  same  as  the  accelerator 
pedal  but  it  has  a  spring  latch,  and  when  it  is 
desirable  to  run  the  machine  for  some  distance  at  a 
nearly  constant  speed,  this  lever  may  be  used  as  it 
will  stay  where  placed,  thus  relieving  the  right  foot 
which  would  become  tired  of  holding  the  accelerator 
pedal  in  one  position  for  a  long  time.  It  is  usually 
placed  on  the  steering  post  above  the  steering  wheel 
and  is  operated  with  the  right  hand.  Do  not 
advance  throttle  lever  too  quickly. 

The  Spark-Control  Lever — It  takes  some  time 
after  the  spark  occurs  for  the  gas  to  get  thoroughly 
ignited  and  give  power.  It  is  therefore  desirable  to 
have  the  spark  occur  earlier  when  the  engine  is 
running  fast,  so  that  the  gas  may  be  thoroughly 
ignited  at  the  beginning  and  deliver  power  for  full 
length  of  the  working  stroke.  This  means  that  the 
spark  when  advanced  actually  occurs  when  the 
piston  is  still  traveling  up  on  the  compression 
stroke  and  so  gets  the  gas  in  the  cylinder  at  its 
maximum  pressure  when  the  crank  passes  top 
dead  center.  When  the  motor  is  cranked  in  starting 
it  is  turned  so  slowly  that  to  avoid  a  kick  back  the 
spark  must  be  retarded  so  that  it  occurs  after  the 
crank  has  passed  top  dead  center.  The  spark- 
control  lever  is  connected  with  the  spark-timing 
device,  and  so  controls  the  time  at  which  the  spark 
occurs  in  the  cylinder.  It  is  usually  placed  on  the 
steering  column  above  the  steering  wheel,  and  is 
operated  with  the  right  hand.  On  some  cars  it  is 
moved  forward  and  on  others  backward  to  advance 
the  spark.  When  the  engine  is  cranked  in  starting, 
the  spark  shoiild  be  fully  retarded.  After  the 


1 62     Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

motor  has  started  it  can  usually  be  advanced  about 
two- thirds,  but  there  is  no  set  rule  for  this.  In 
general,  advance  as  the  motor  (not  the  car)  gains 
speed  and  retard  as  it  slackens  speed.  Keep  the 
spark  advanced  as  far  as  possible  at  all  times  but 
retard  it  if  the  engine  labors  or  knocks. 

Ignition  Switch — Usually  placed  on  the  dash. 
It  is  for  the  purpose  of  closing  and  opening  the 
electric  circuit  and  thus  stopping  the  motor  or 
allowing  it  to  be  started.  It  is  generally  provided 
with  a  removable  plug  or  a  key  so  that  the  car 
may  be  safely  left  at  the  curb.  Be  sure  that  switch 
is  in  "Off  "  position  when  the  motor  is  stopped. 

Steering  Wheel — The  steering  wheel  is  usually 
placed  on  the  left-hand  side  of  the  car  directly  in 
front  of  the  operator's  seat.  By  its  means  the 
direction  of  the  car  is  controlled.  When  moving 
forward,  turning  the  wheel  counter  clockwise  will 
cause  the  car  to  go  to  the  left  and  turning  it  clock- 
wise will  cause  the  car  to  go  to  the  right.  It  should 
be  operated  with  the  left  hand  only  unless  steering 
is  very  hard,  when  both  hands  may  be  used.  Grasp 
the  wheel  firmly  with  one  or  both  hands  but  not 
with  a  strong,  nervous  grip,  as  this  becomes  very 
tiresome.  If  the  hand  is  kept  always  in  one 
position  on  the  wheel  when  only  slight  turns  are 
•desired,  there  will  be  no  difficulty  in  knowing  by  its 
position  when  the  front  wheels  are  pointing  straight 
.ahead.  When  turning  corners  the  position  of  the 
hand  on  the  wheel  may  be  changed  and  both  hands 
should  be  used.  Do  not  attempt  to  turn  the  steer- 
ing wheel  when  the  car  is  not  moving  as  this  throws 
a  very  great  and  entirely  needless  strain  on  the 
whole  steering  mechanism. 


Driving  the  Car  163 

Priming  Device  or  "  Choke  "—When  the  engine 
is  cranked  in  starting,  it  is  turned  so  slowly  that  the 
air  going  in  through  the  carburetor  has  not  sufficient 
velocity  to  draw  the  required  amount  of  gasoline 
from  the  spray  nozzle.  The  mixture  that  goes 
into  the  cylinder  is  therefore  weak  and  cannot  be 
exploded  easily.  To  enrich  the  mixture,  a  valve  is 
placed  in  the  carburetor  air  passage,  to  choke  off 
the  air  and  feed  more  gasoline  to  the  motor.  This 
valve  is  operated  by  a  lever  or  button  usually 
found  on  the  dash  or  attached  to  the  steering 
column  under  the  steering  wheel.  It  is  often 
combined  with  a  device  for  making  the  mixture 
richer  or  leaner  to  take  care  of.  different  weather 
conditions.  Some  engines  will  start  nearly  every 
time  without  priming  the  carburetor;  others  must 
be  primed  every  time  the  engine  is  started. 
Do  not  prime  to  excess;  as  soon  as  the  engine 
starts,  return  the  lever  or  button  to  the  running 
position. 

The  Gasoline  Tank— The  gasoline  tank  carries 
the  fuel  that  is  to  be  fed  to  the  engine.  It  will 
sometimes  be  found  under  the  front  seats,  and  may 
be  filled  by  removing  the  cushion.  In  this  system 
the  gasoline  flows  by  gravity  to  the  carburetor  and 
a  small  hole  about  the  size  of  a  pin  will  be  found 
in  the  filler  cap  to  allow  the  air  to  enter  as  the 
gasoline  leaves.  This  hole  should  be  kept  clean, 
because  if  the  air  cannot  enter  the  gasoline  will  stop 
flowing  to  the  carburetor  and  the  engine  will  stop 
running.  Some  cars  carry  the  gasoline  tank  on  the 
rear  of  the  chassis  under  the  body  and  air  pressure 
is  kept  on  the  gasoline  to  force  it  to  the  carburetor. 
This  pressure  is  obtained  by  a  hand  pump  placed 


164     Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

on  the  dash,  and  is  kept  constant  automatically. 
This  system  differs  from  all  others  in  that  there 
should  be  no  hole  in  the  filler  cap  of  the  tank  and 
the  gasket  on  the  cap  should  be  kept  in  good  con- 
dition to  prevent  air  leakage.  A  gauge  will  be 
found  on  the  dash  and  by  this  means  the  pressure 
on  the  tank  can  be  determined.  Other  cars  with  the 
tank  under  the  rear  end  of  the  chassis  have  a 
system  of  drawing  the  gasoline  by  means  of  a 
vacuum,  to  a  small- tank  located  by  the  carburetor 
under  the  hood,  from  which  it  flows  into  the  car- 
buretor by  gravity.  Still  other  cars  have  a  gasoline 
tank  in  the  cowl  of  the  dash  from  which  the  gasoline 
flows  to  the  carburetor  by  gravity. 

The  Lubricator — The  lubricating  system  is  gener- 
ally built  into  the  crank  case  of  the  engine.  The  oil 
is  supplied  through  a  pipe  or  other  opening  found  on 
the  engine  and  a  gauge  or  pet  cock  is  provided  to 
indicate  the  amount  of  oil  in  the  motor.  The 
system  should  be  kept  filled  with  a  light  to  medium 
high-grade  gas-engine  oil.  The  lubricating  system 
usually  oils  all  internal  parts  of  the  engine  only,  the 
transmission,  steering  and  differential  gears  being 
lubricated  by  heavy  oil  or  grease  placed  in  their 
respective  housings,  and  all  other  parts  of  the  car 
are  taken  care  of  by  oil  or  grease  cups.  Any  oil 
put  into  the  engine  should  be  carefully  strained  to 
remove  dirt  or  grit. 

The  Water  Tank— The  water  tank  or  radiator 
is  placed  on  the  front  of  the  car  and  should  be  kept 
filled  with  clear  water.  Any  sediment  that  is 
allowed  to  enter  the  radiator  will  clog  it  and  the 
engine  will  then  overheat.  During  the  winter  it  is 
well  to  fill  the  radiator  with  some  anti-freezing 


Driving  the  Car  165 

solution.     Alcohol  is  good  for  this  purpose,  mixed 
with  water  in  the  following  proportions  as  desired. 

2  pints  wood  alcohol  to  I  gallon  water  freezes  at    o°  Fahr. 
2X  pints  wood  alcohol  to  I  gallon  water  freezes  at  10°  below 

3  pints  wood  alcohol  to  I  gallon  water  freezes  at  20°  below 

4  pints  wood  alcohol  to  I  gallon  water  freezes  at  38°  below 


If  steam  is  discharged  from  the  radiator,  examine 
the  fan  directly  back  of  it  and  the  water  pump,  and 
see  that  there  is  no  clog  in  the  pipes  leading  to  and 
from  it. 

Tires — Keep  the  tires  free  from  oil  and  grease  as 
they  rot  the  rubber.  Drive  very  carefully  in  wet 
weather  because  rubber  cuts  very  easily  when  wet. 
Drive  slowly  around  corners  and  start  and  stop 
without  jerks;  also  be  very  careful  not  to  rub  the 
tires  against  the  curb.  Have  all  small  cuts  vul- 
canized so  that  moisture  cannot  get  in  and  rot  the 
fabric.  Do  not  run  on  a  flat  tire  unless  it  has  been 
damaged  beyond  repair.  Run  slowly  on  the  rim 
or  wrap  rope  around  it  if  no  other  tire  is  to  be  had. 
It  is  very  important  to  keep  the  tires  fully  inflated 
at  all  times.  If  tires  do  not  give  satisfactory  wear 
report  it  to  the  manufacturer  at  once.  When  the 
car  is  to  be  laid  up  for  some  time,  place  jacks  under 
it  to  keep  the  weight  off  the  tires. 

To  Start  the  Motor — Place  the  gear-shifting  lever 
in  the  neutral  position,  put  the  emergency  brake  on, 
retard  the  spark  fully  or  if  well  acquainted  with  the 
motor,  to  a  point  where  the  spark  will  surely  occur 
after  the  crank  has  passed  top  center.  Open 
throttle  about  one-third.  (After  getting  ac- 
quainted with  the  machine  you  will  find  a  position 
for  the  throttle  where  the  motor  starts  best.) 


166     Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

Put  the  switch  in  "On"  position.  If  the  motor 
habitually  starts  hard,  prime  the  carburetor  with 
choking  or  enriching  lever.  If  car  is  equipped 
with  electric  self-starter,  press  hard  on  starting 
button  or  pedal.  When  the  engine  starts,  remove 
foot  from  pedal  immediately,  then  close  throttle 
and  advance  spark  lever  two-thirds.  In  cranking 
the  motor  by  hand,  grasp  some  part  of  the  car 
with  the  left  hand  to  steady  yourself,  place  the  feet 
wide  apart,  and  stand  close  to  the  front  of  the 
machine.  Grasp  the  starting  crank  with  the  right 
hand  having  it  at  its  lowest  position,  or  a  little 
to  the  right  of  this  point.  Push  the  crank  in  as  far 
as  it  will  go  and  turn  slowly  clockwise  until  it 
engages  the  crank  shaft.  It  will  usually  catch 
when  about  at  its  lowest  position.  When  engaged, 
brace  yourself  firmly  and  pull  up  quickly  on  crank, 
turning  it  about  one-half  revolution.  If  after 
repeating  this  operation  several  times  the  engine 
does  not  start,  it  may  be  found  necessary  to  spin 
the  motor.  This  means  cranking  for  a  full  revolu- 
tion or  more.  In  spinning  the  motor,  care  should 
be  taken  to  always  start  with  an  up  pull  so  as  to 
gain  momentum  for  the  down  thrust  and  so  reduce 
the  danger  of  a  kick  back  to  a  minimum.  After 
the  engine  starts,  advance  the  spark  about  two- 
thirds  and  close  the  throttle.  If  the  engine  has 
been  started  on  the  battery  and  a  magneto  is  used, 
switch  immediately  from  the  battery  to  magneto. 
Do  not  allow  the  motor  to  race.  When  running 
idle,  it  should  turn  over  at  its  slowest  speed. 

To  Start  the  Car — Take  your  place  in  the  driver's 
seat,  place  left  foot  on  clutch  pedal,  and  press  hard  to 
release  the  clutch.  Keep  it  disengaged  while  with 


Driving  the  Car  167 

the  right  hand  the  emergency  brake  is  released  and 
gear  lever  is  shifted  from  neutral  to  the  first  speed 
notch.  Then  with  the  right  foot  press  the  accelerator 
pedal  gently  until  the  motor  speed  is  increased  a 
little  and  at  the  same  time  with  the  left  foot  allow 
the  clutch  pedal  to  come  back,  until  the  clutch 
starts  to  engage  and  the  car  begins  to  move.  From 
this  point  decrease  the  pressure  on  the  clutch  pedal 
very  gradually  until  the  clutch  is  fully  engaged,  at  the 
same  time  listening  to  the  engine  to  see  that  it 
doesn't  slow  down  sufficiently  to  stall.  If  it  shows 
signs  of  stalling,  press  accelerator  pedal  a  little 
more  to  increase  its  speed,  at  the  same  time  keeping 
a  slightly  greater  pressure  on  the  clutch  pedal. 
Stalling  the  motor  is  the  result  of  feeding  too  little 
gas  with  the  accelerator,  or  of  not  keeping  pressure 
on  the  clutch  pedal  during  the  time  the  clutch  is 
engaging.  The  jerking  of  the  car  comes  from 
feeding  too  much  gas  and  engaging  the  clutch  too 
suddenly.  Both  of  these  faults  may  be  overcome  by 
listening  to  the  speed  of  the  engine  and  keeping 
it  right  through  the  proper  use  of  the  accelerator 
pedal,  and  by  releasing  the  pressure  of  the  foot  from 
the  clutch  pedal  very  gradually  from  the  time  it 
starts  to  engage  until  it  is  fully  engaged.  It  is 
impossible  to  become  a  good  driver  until  the  ear 
learns  to  judge  the  speed  of  the  motor  by  its  sound 
and  the  left  foot  learns  to  engage  the  clutch  gradu- 
ally. When  the  clutch  has  become  fully  engaged, 
press  accelerator  pedal  slightly  to  speed  up  the 
machine.  As  soon  as  it  has  attained  fair  momentum , 
release  the  clutch  and  at  the  same  time  let  up  on 
the  accelerator  pedal.  Change  gear  lever  immedi- 
ately from  first  speed  notch  to  second  speed  notch 


1 68     Putnam 's  Automobile  Handbook 

and  let  in  the  clutch  quickly  until  you  feel  it  take 
hold  and  then  gradually,  at  the  same  time  pressing 
slightly  on  the  accelerator  pedal.  When  the  clutch 
pedal  is  pushed  out,  the  accelerator  pedal  should  be  re- 
leased; when  the  clutch  is  let  in,  the  accelerator  pedal 
should  be  pressed  slightly.  Change  from  second  to 
third  and  from  third  to  fourth  if  four  speeds  are 
employed,  always  releasing  clutch  when  gear  is 
shifted,  and  always  accelerating  slightly  while  the 
clutch  is  being  engaged. 

Do  not  forget  that  the  clutch  is  released  when  the 
clutch  pedal  is  pushed  out,  and  that  it  is  engaged 
when  the  pedal  is  allowed  to  come  back.  Run  on 
the  high-speed  gear  as  much  as  possible,  and  when 
it  is  necessary  to  drive  more  slowly  release  the 
clutch  and  apply  the  brake  gently  until  the  car  is 
brought  to  the  desired  speed.  Then  if  the  speed 
of  the  machine  is  low  enough  to  warrant  it,  release 
the  brake  and,  with  the  clutch  still  disengaged, 
change  from  the  high  to'  the  next  lower  speed  notch 
and  let  in  the  clutch.  If  the  car  has  lost  much 
momentum  it  may  be  necessary  to  change  to  the 
lowest  gear  before  letting  in  the  clutch,  otherwise 
the  engine  may  be  stalled.  Do  not  drive  too  close 
to  other  vehicles  or  objects  before  releasing  the 
clutch  and  applying  the  brakes  as  the  brakes  may 
not  hold  as  well  as  you  think  and  you  may  not  be 
able  to  operate  them  correctly  when  in  close  quar- 
ters. If  while  the  machine  is  standing  it  is  found 
impossible  to  move  the  gear  lever  from  neutral  to 
first  or  reverse,  leave  the  lever  in  neutral,  allow  the 
clutch  to  engage  slightly,  then  release  it  quickly  and 
shift  lever  to  desired  notch. 

To  Stop  the  Car — Select  a  lamp-post,  tree,  or  other 


Driving  the  Car  169 

object  along  the  curb,  and  when  still  some  distance 
from  it,  disengage  the  clutch  and  apply  the  brake 
gently  and  get  the  car  tinder  control  so  that  you 
can,  if  you  wish,  stop  ten  feet  before  the  object 
is  reached.  Then,  releasing  the  brake  pressure 
slightly,  allow  the  car  to  drift  to  the  object,  stopping 
with  the  rear  door  directly  opposite  the  object  and 
the  car  close  enough  to  the  curb  to  allow  passengers 
to  alight  on  the  sidewalk.  Shift  gears  to  neutral, 
apply  emergency  brake,  and  allow  clutch  to  engage. 
Be  careful  that  the  tires  do  not  scrape  along  the 
curb  as  this  is  very  damaging.  The  brake  should 
be  applied  so  that  the  car  is  not  brought  up  with 
a  jerk.  This  can  be  accomplished  easily  with  a 
little  practice,  as  can  also  starting  of  the  car.  Re- 
member that  you  are  driving  for  the  comfort  of  the 
passengers,  and  they  can  feel  the  jerks  and  jar 
much  more  than  you. 

To  Reverse  the  Car — Bring  it  to  a  standstill  first, 
then  with  the  clutch  released  place  the  gear  lever 
in  the  reverse  notch.  Allow  the  clutch  to  engage 
gently  with  the  left  hand  only  on  the  steering  wheel, 
look  backward  and  gauge  the  direction  by  the  rear 
end  of  the  car.  Do  not  attempt  to  steer  by  watch- 
ing the  front  wheels;  always  look  to  the  rear  when 
going  backward,  to  make  sure  the  way  is  clear. 

Turning  in  Narrow  Streets — With  the  car  mov- 
ing slowly,  first  look  back  to  see  that  there  is  no 
other  vehicle  coming  and  then  turn  the  wheels 
sharply  to  the  left  as  far  as  possible.  When  within 
five  feet  more  or  less,  depending  upon  the  speed  of 
the  car,  of  the  left-hand  curb,  release  the  clutch 
and  apply  the  brake  gently,  at  the  same  time 
turning  the  steering  wheel  quickly  to  the  right. 


170     Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

Stop  turning  the  wheel  when  the  car  is  brought  to  a 
standstill.  With  the  clutch  still  released  and  the 
brake  on,  shift  to  the  reverse  gear.  Then  release 
the  brake;  accelerate  slightly,  let  the  clutch  in 
carefully,  and  when  the  car  starts  to  move  continue 
turning  the  wheel  to  the  right  or  clockwise.  This 
will  point  the  car  in  the  opposite  direction.  When 
going  backward  look  toward  the  back  of  the  car  and 
also  up  and  down  the  street  to  see  that  no  other 
vehicle  is  approaching.  After  the  car  has  traveled 
back  a  sufficient  distance,  release  the  clutch,  take 
foot  off  of  accelerator  pedal  and  apply  brake,  at  the 
same  time  turning  steering  wheel  to  the  left  until 
the  car  stops.  Then  with  the  clutch  still  released 
and  the  brake  still  on,  shift  from  reverse  gear  to  first 
speed  gear.  Take  right  foot  from  brake  pedal  and 
accelerate  slightly,  allowing  clutch  to  engage  grad- 
ually, and  as  soon  as  the  car  starts  to  move,  continue 
turning  steering  wheel  to  the  left  until  the  car  goes 
straight  ahead.  Do  not  turn  the  steering  wheel 
while  the  car  is  standing.  Start  to  turn  when  the 
car  begins  to  move.  Do  not  allow  tires  to  strike 
curb. 

Turning  Corners — Before  turning  a  corner  hold 
out  the  hand  so  that  any  driver  behind  you  may  see 
it,  and  also  look  back  to  make  sure  that  he  does 
see  it.  If  another  vehicle  is  close  behind  you  or  if 
there  is  one  in  front  coming  toward  you,  slow  up  your 
car  and  wait  until  it  has  passed  before  turning. 
When  turning  a  corner  to  the  right  keep  as  close 
to  the  curb  as  possible  so  that  the  car  will  be  on  the 
right-hand  side  when  you  get  into  the  side  street. 
When  turning  to  the  left  go  past  the  center  of  the 
street  into  which  you  are  traveling  and  then  turn 


Driving  the  Car  171 

sharply,  so  that  you  will  be  on  the  right-hand  side 
of  the  road.  Do  not  cut  close  to  the  left  curb. 
Always  go  around  a  corner  at  a  low  enough  speed 
to  make  the  use  of  the  second  speed  gear  necessary, 
and  reduce  speed  so  that  the  gear  shifting  must  be 
done  before  starting  to  turn,  not  after,  as  this  gives 
better  control  of  the  car.  Turning  corners  at  a  high 
rate  of  speed  puts  a  great  strain  on  the  tires  and 
causes  them  to  wear  excessively.  It  is  also  un- 
comfortable for  the  passengers.  Use  both  hands  on 
the  steering  wheel,  and  if  the  car  is  found  to  be 
going  too  fast  check  it  by  releasing  the  clutch  and 
applying  the  brake  slightly.  Do  not  shift  gears 
before  slowing  the  car.  The  idea  is  to  slow  the 
car  sufficiently  to  make  shifting  to  a  lower  gear 
necessary. 

Climbing  Hills — When  approaching  a  hill  accel- 
erate and  advance  the  spark,  as  speeding  up  the 
motor  makes  it  more  powerful  and  adding  momen- 
tum to  the  car  will  often  carry  it  over  hills  that 
would  need  an  intermediate  speed  gear  if  an  attempt 
is  made  to  climb  them  slowly.  As  the  hill  is  reached, 
open  the  throttle  fully.  If  the  engine  begins  to  feel 
the  grade  and  labors  or  knocks,  retard  the  spark 
until  the  knocking  or  laboring  ceases.  If  the  hill 
is  a  very  steep  one,  as  soon  as  the  engine  begins  to 
lose  speed,  release  the  clutch,  remove  pressure  from 
accelerator  and,  without  applying  the  brake,  shift 
to  a  lower  speed  gear.  Let  clutch  in  quickly  and 
at  the  same  time  open  accelerator  wide.  It  will 
then  probably  be  found  that  the  spark  can  be 
advanced  without  causing  the  engine  '  to  knock. 
On  some  hills  it  may  be  found  necessary  to  shift  to 
the  first  speed  gear,  but  this  should  not  be  done 


172     Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

unless  the  engine  will  not  pull  the  car  on  a  higher 
gear.  When  gears  are  shifted  on  a  hill  the  change 
must  be  made  quickly  and  the  clutch  let  in  immedi- 
ately, as  slow  work  will  allow  the  car  to  lose  mo- 
mentum, and  then  when  the  clutch  is  engaged  the 
engine  will  stall.  If  the  engine  stalls,  put  on  the 
emergency  brake  and  put  gear  lever  in  neutral 
notch.  It  will  be  well  to  place  a  stone  or  block 
back  of  the  rear  wheels  before  cranking  the  motor 
as  the  vibration  of  the  engine  may  jar  the  emergency 
lever  loose.  In  starting  again,  release  the  clutch, 
put  lever  in  first  speed  gear,  accelerate  strongly, 
release  the  emergency  brake  and  at  the  same 
time  let  the  clutch  engage.  This  must  be  done 
quickly,  otherwise  the  car  will  start  to  back  down 
the  hill.  With  some  cars  it  may  be  found  easier 
when  starting  from  a  standstill  on  a  steep  hill,  to 
apply  the  foot  brake,  release  the  emergency  brake, 
engage  the  clutch  while  the  foot  brake  is  released 
gradually,  at  the  same  time  feeding  gas  to  the  engine 
with  the  hand  throttle.  Do  not  attempt  to  climb 
steep  hills  until  you  have  thoroughly  mastered 
shifting  gears  on  the  level. 

Descending  Hills — When  descending  slight  grades 
throw  off  the  ignition  switch  and  leave  the  gear  lever 
in  high  speed  with  the  clutch  engaged.  This  will 
cause  the  engine  to  act  as  a  slight  brake  and  if 
necessary  the  running  brake  may  be  operated  in 
connection  with  it.  There  is  no  harm  in  applying 
the  brake  under  these  conditions  with  the  clutch 
engaged,  because  switching  off  the  ignition  causes 
the  engine  to  stop  giving  power.  When  a  very 
steep  grade  is  encountered,  before  attempting  to 
descend  it,  stop  the  car  and  shift  to  second  or  first 


Driving  the  Car  173 

speed  gear.  The  lower  the  gear  used  the  greater 
will  be  the  braking  power,  and  when  first  speed  is 
used  it  is  almost  impossible  for  the  car  to  get  beyond 
control.  The  ignition  may  be  switched  off  or  on  as 
the  occasion  requires.  Switching  it  off  gives  greater 
braking  power.  The  clutch  must  be  left  engaged, 
and  the  brakes  may  be  used  to  help.  It  is  well  to 
use  first  one  brake  and  then  the  other  in  descending 
long  grades,  as  too  long  an  application  of  one  will 
cause  it  to  heat  and  burn  the  friction  material. 
Do  not  wait  until  you  are  half  way  down  the  hill 
before  finding  out  that  it  is  too  steep  for  the  brakes 
to  hold  the  car.  Make  up  your  mind  before  starting 
to  descend  and  shift  to  first  gear  if  necessary. 
Do  not  allow  the  brakes  to  get  in  such  condition  that 
they  will  not  hold  to  the  best  of  their  ability. 
Never  descend  the  hill  at  a  high  rate  of  speed  no 
matter  how  safe  it  looks.  Brakes  do  not  hold  as 
well  when  the  car  is  going  fast  as  they  do  when  it  is 
moving  slowly,  nor  will  they  stop  a  car  as  quickly 
going  down  a  grade  as  they  will  going  up. 

Driving  in  Congested  Streets — Procure  a  copy  of 
the  rules  of  the  road  of  the  city  in  which  you  are 
driving  and  obey  them.  Keep  to  the  right-hand 
curb  unless  it  is  lined  with  standing  vehicles,  in 
which  case  keep  close  to  them.  In  overtaking  an- 
other vehicle,  pass  it  on  its  left.  In  passing  a  vehicle 
coming  in  the  opposite  direction  go  to  the  right  of  it. 
When  stopping,  the  wheels  must  be  within  six 
inches  of  the  curb.  Before  stopping,  hold  your  hand 
out  at  the  side  of  the  car  to  warn  the  man  who  may 
be  behind  you.  Do  not  at  any  time  slow  down  or 
stop  without  holding  out  your  hand  and  looking 
back  to  make  sure  that  it  is  seen.  Pedestrians 


174     Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

have  the  right  of  way  at  crossings,  but  you  may 
warn  them  of  your  approach  by  blowing  the  horn. 
However,  do  not  make  a  nuisance  of  yourself  by 
using  it  more  than  necessary.  When  traveling  in 
a  side  street,  upon  coming  to  a  main  thoroughfare 
slow  up  so  that  you  can  stop  quickly,  as  vehicles 
on  these  streets  have  the  right  of  way.  When  on  a 
main  throughfare  it  is  not  necessary  to  slow  up  at 
every  cross  street.  Watch  the  traffic  policeman, 
and  when  one  holds  up  his  hand,  stop;  first  holding 
out  your  hand  to  warn  anyone  behind  you.  Re- 
main standing  until  the  policeman  motions  you  to 
proceed.  In  some  places  the  policemen  use  whistles 
instead  of  motions,  and  the  signals  used  by  them 
should  be  learned.  Whenever  it  is  necessary  to 
reduce  the  speed  of  the  car  considerably,  release  the 
clutch  and  apply  the  brake.  When  the  car  is  going 
slow  enough,  shift  to  a  lower  speed  gear  to  prevent 
stalling  the  motor  when  the  clutch  is  let  in.  When  it 
is  found  necessary  to  keep  behind  a  slow  moving 
vehicle,  shift  to  a  speed  so  low  that  it  will  not  be 
necessary  to  slip  the  clutch.  If  it  is  desirable  to  go 
slower  than  first  speed  gear,  however,  the  clutch 
may  be  slipped  by  keeping  a  slight  pressure  on  that 
clutch  pedal.  A  great  variation  in  speed  may  be 
obtained  when  in  any  gear  by  the  proper  manipula- 
tion of  the  spark  and  throttle  levers. 

Do  not  attempt  to  keep  pace  with  other  vehicles 
until  you  are  an  experienced  driver.  When  in 
close  quarters,  perform  every  operation  slowly  as  a 
move  made  slowly  but  surely  will  probably  take  less 
time  than  a  move  made  incorrectly.  There  is  no 
occasion  for  getting  excited,  as  it  is  safe  to  assume 
that  every  other  vehicle  is  under  perfect  control. 


Driving  the  Car  175 

Learn  to  shift  gears  without  looking  at  the  lever, 
because  you  will  need  your  eyes  to  watch  the  road. 
Sit  straight  in  the  seat :  do  not  get  hunched  over  the 
steering  wheel  as  this  indicates  a  novice.  Always 
drive  into  the  garage  on  the  first  speed  gear. 

Washing  the  Car — The  car  should  be  washed 
immediately  upon  coming  into  the  garage,  before 
the  mud  has  had  time  to  dry.  Do  not  scour  off 
the  mud  as  this  scratches  the  varnish.  Use  the 
hose  with  a  slow  stream  until  the  mud  is  well 
loosened,  and  then  finish  by  soaking  (not  rubbing) 
off  with  a  sponge  well  wet  with  water.  Where 
a  hose  is  not  procurable  the  mud  may  be  loosened 
with  a  wet  sponge  and  then  washed  off  entirely  by 
throwing  pails  of  water  on  it.  Be  careful  that 
water  does  not  go  through  the  radiator  or  any  other 
opening  and  get  on  the  engine,  as  this  is  likely  to 
short  circuit  the  magneto  or  spark  plugs  and  prevent 
the  motor  from  running.  If  there  is  grease  on  the 
car,  soap  must  be  used  to  remove  it.  Castile 
soap  is  the  best  for  this  purpose.  However,  do  not 
apply  the  soap  itself  to  the  car,  but  make  suds  in 
lukewarm  water.  After  all  mud  and  grease  has 
been  removed,  wipe  dry  with  a  chamois  skin. 
Wash  and  dry  the  body  before  the  running  gear, 
and  be  careful  that  no  grease  is  collected  on  chamois 
from  wheel  bearings  and  steering- arm  joints. 

Cautions — Don't  twist  the  steering  wheel  when 
the  car  is  standing.  Corners  should  be  turned  at 
slow  speed  to  save  wear  on  tires.  The  brakes 
should  not  be  applied  with  too  much  force  except  in 
an  emergency,  as  it  is  hard  on  tires  and  the  machine 
in  general.  Don't  let  the  motor  labor  or  knock 
when  ascending  hills.  When  going  down  long  hills 


176     Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

use  one  set  of  brakes  and  then  the  other.  Shift  to 
first  speed  gear  before  descending  steep  hills. 
Change  from  first  speed  to  reverse  and  from  reverse 
to  first  only  when  the  car  is  standing.  Be  very 
careful  of  skidding  on  wet  pavements.  Put  non- 
skid  chains  on  for  wet  or  icy  roads.  Always  start 
and  stop  the  car  without  a  jerk.  This  constitutes 
good  driving.  Don't  forget  to  .see  that  the  license 
pad  is  attached  before  leaving  the  garage.  Inspect 
oil,  gasoline,  and  water  tanks  before  making  a  trip 
and  see  that  the  necessary  tools  and  extra  tires  are 
in  the  car.  Don't  let  the  car  stand  with  the  motor 
stopped  in  the  winter  time,  unless  the  radiator  is 
filled  with  anti-freezing  solution.  Look  the  car 
over  thoroughly  after  each  run. 

The  records  of  the  examinations  held  at  the  school 
show  that  there  are  a  few  points  of  driving  which 
a  large  majority  of  the  students  do  not  entirely 
master.  This  is  not  due  to  lack  of  instruction  in 
the  subjects,  but  is  rather  the  result  of  poor  memory 
or  insufficient  practice.  Failure  to  perform  these 
operations  perfectly  does  not  necessarily  mean  thai; 
the  student  is  not  a  safe  driver,  but  it  does  show 
that  he  needs  more  practice  before  being  rated  as 
an  expert.  If  you  want  to  be  a  little  better  than  the 
average  driver,  keep  in  mind  the  following  points, 
go  back  and  read  them  over  again  in  this  booklet, 
think  about  them  when  driving  the  car  and  try 
your  best  to  master  them. 

When  about  to  turn  a  corner,  or  turn  in  a  street, 
or  in  fact  whenever  swerving  from  a  straight  line, 
look  back  to  see  if  it  is  safe  to  make  the  turn,  and 
hold  out  your  hand  to  signal  what  you  intend  to  do. 

Make  sure  that  the  spark  is  retarded,  the  gear 


Driving  the  Car  177 

lever  is  in  netitral,  switch  on,  and  other  levers  in 
their  proper  positions  before  cranking  the  engine. 

When  the  car  has  been  slowed  down  to  a  very 
low  speed  for  any  reason,  shift  to  a  lower  gear; 
don't  try  to  pick  up  speed  on  high  gear.  Don't 
shift  to  a  lower  gear  until  the  car  speed  has  been 
reduced  sufficiently. 

In  New  York  City,  traffic  traveling  north  and 
south  has  the  right  of  way,  therefore  when  crossing 
an  avenue  go  slowly  and  make  sure  you  will  not 
cut  off  vehicles  on  the  avenue. 

When  starting  the  car,  allow  the  clutch  pedal 
to  come  back  until  the  clutch  begins  to  engage, 
then  keep  enough  pressure  on  the  pedal  to  allow 
it  to  become  fully  engaged  very  gradually.  Lettirig 
the  clutch  engage  all  at  once  makes  the  car  jump 
or  the  engine  stall,  and  observers  smile  knowingly. 
In  this  connection  you  should  listen  to  the  engine 
and  operate  the  clutch  and  accelerator  so  that  the 
engine  is  not  raced  or  stalled. 


CHAPTER  XXVI 

WHERE  EXTRA  CAUTION  IS  NECESSARY 

IT  would  seem  unnecessary  to  give  caution  to  the 
motorist  where  there  is  an  element  of  safety  in- 
volved; it  ought  to  be  understood  that  everyone 
entrusted  with  the  wheel  of  a  motor  car  would  be 
interested  in  his  personal  safety  and  in  the  safety 
of  those  in  his  keeping,  and  that  he  would  take  all 
ordinary  and  even  extraordinary  precautions  to 
keep  skin  unscratched  and  bones  unbroken  and 
existence  preserved.  But  it  is  a  fact  that  for  a 
large  proportion  of  motorists  there  is  no  such 
word  as  "Danger,"  and  no  such  word  as  "Care." 
Why  is  it? 

For  some  reason  there  is  abroad  the  spirit  of 
"take  a  chance,"  and  it  has  entirely  superseded 
the  cautious  foresight  which  was  once  the  American 
nature.  Perhaps  it  is  the  changed  conditions  of 
our  land  which  is  responsible  for  this.  In  pioneer 
days  caution  was  necessary,  for  one  did  not  know 
behind  what  tree  or  rock  lurked  death  in  the  form 
178 


Where  Extra  Caution  Is  Necessary  179 

of  a  savage,  and  there  were  wild  animals  to  avoid 
in  the  forests,  and  even  along  traveled  highways; 
so  that  to  look  ahead,  to  watch  for  signs  of  danger, 
and  to  approach  points  of  peril  with  every  sense 
alert,  was  second  nature. 

Boys  who  were  brought  up  to  tramp  the  woods 
or  prairies  were  alert  also,  because  of  hiding  snakes 
and  prowling  wolves,  and  because  of  the  need  for 
keeping  track  of  distances  and  locations  to  prevent 
being  lost.  We  are  only  a  generation  or  two  from 
these  things  even  at  the  crowded  centers  of  popula- 
tion; but  the  last  two  generations  which  have 
grown  up  in  the  city,  and  millions  who  have  come 
from  other  lands  in  the  same  period  have  not  this 
inbred  caution.  Men  who  are  in  peril  daily  from 
one  cause  and  another  incident  to  city  life,  and 
"nothing  happens,"  cannot  be  expected  to  get 
excited  about  possibilities,  which  in  time  become 
so  familiar  as  to  breed  contempt. 

The  man  who  is  in  constant  fear  lest  something 
fall  from  a  tall  building  upon  him,  or  there  be  an 
explosion  from  beneath,  or  a  crash  of  trolley, 
subway,  or  elevated  cars,  with  a  generous  comple- 
ment of  fire  and  flood  and  gale  added,  would  go 
crazed  if  he  thought  much  on  these  things.  There- 
fore it  is  hard  to  get  him  to  think  of  "safety  first." 
It  is  rather  "I  should  worry,"  and  it  actually 


180     Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

prolongs  life,  so  long  as  it  is  applied  to  familiar 
things — it  keeps  nerve  systems  from  breaking. 

This  is  why  it  is  so  hard  to  get  the  city  driver 
accustomed  to  caution  in  places  of  real  peril. 
One  of  the  worst  of  these  is  driving  over  railway 
tracks.  Out  on  the  Huckleberry  division,  where 
there  is  but  one  train  a  day  each  way  if  luck  favors 
the  intending  passengers,  there  is  not  so  much 
danger;  but  in  the  vicinity  of  all  the  large  cities 
where  suburban  trains  run  often  and  through 
trains  are  numerous,  it  behooves  the  autoist  to 
acquire  speedily  a  belief  in  signs.  The  usual 
sign  at  a  railroad  crossing  is  a  post  with  two  arms 
in  the  form  of  an  X  to  warn  highway  travelers. 
It  matters  not  that  there  is  a  flagman  or  gates, 
a  due  sense  of  caution  is  necessary  for  the  driver 
of  an  auto. 

The  railway  near  the  writer's  old  home  had 
signs  reading:  "Stop,  Look,  Listen";  and  this 
should  be  the  slogan  of  the  driver  nearing  a  rail- 
way crossing  today.  In  spite  of  the  ringing  of 
engine  bells  and  blowing  of  locomotive  whistles 
and  of  other  precautions  of  the  railway  company, 
it  is  incumbent  upon  the  motorist  to  be  careful, 
to  know  that  there  is  no  train  approaching.  An 
automobile  may  be  stopped  within  a  few  feet  and 
the  train  sometimes  takes  a  quarter  of  a  mile  for 


Where  Extra  Caution  Is  Necessary  181 

a  stop;  therefore  the  motorist  should  not  trust  to 
the  stopping  of  the  locomotive,  for  by  that  time 
it  might  be  everlastingly  too  late.  Better  stop 
the  auto  at  every  crossing  if  the  noise  of  the  motor 
prevents  hearing  whistle  or  bell  signals  from  the 
train. 

But  there  is  a  worse  dereliction  than  failing  to 
make  sure  that  a  train  is  not  at  hand,  and  that  is 
the  devil-may-care  spirit  which  prompts  driver 
to  spurt  up  the  engine  and  dash  for  the  crossing 
to  get  over  ahead  of  the  train  that  is  in  plain  sight. 
There  are  few  persons  who  can  estimate  the  speed 
of  a  railway  train  with  any  degree  of  accuracy, 
even  the  railway  employes  having  to  check  the 
time  between  known  points  to  estimate  the 
speed,  unless  there  is  a  speedometer.  The  autoist, 
looking  at  a  coming  train,  sees  it  at  an  angle  which 
prevents  his  comparing  it  with  fixed  objects  and 
cannot  tell  if  it  is  running  ten  or  sixty  miles  an 
hour  as  a  rule. 

It  does  not  do  any  good  to  talk  about  rights  and 
failure  to  hear  a  warning  after  the  final  ceremonies 
are  over  and  the  cemetery  has  another  monument, 
and  the  writer  would  much  prefer  to  be  a  live  snail 
than  a  dead  hare,  and  would  agree  to  make  his 
destination  first,  as  well.  Neither  will  it  do  to 
talk  about  the  fool-killer  and  his  good  work;  some- 


1 82     Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

times  others  than  the  foolish  driver  are  imperiled 
and  suffer.  There  is  only  one  way  to  regard  it  and 
that  is  to  resolve  to  observe  the  ordinary  rules 
of  caution  and  to  make  sure  that  one  is  not  trying 
to  occupy  the  same  space  as  a  railway  train  at  the 
same  time.  The  train  has  might,  if  not  right,  you 
know. 

Equally  important  are  the  crossings  of  trolley 
lines,  in  these  days  of  high-speed  trains  and  cars, 
and  quite  as  many  accidents  occur  at  street 
intersections  where  two  main  lines  of  travel  cross, 
even  though  there  be  no  trolley  lines.  It  takes  so 
little  effort  and  so  little  loss  of  time  to  slow  down 
until  one  can  see  the  way  clear,  when  there  is  no 
traffic  man  at  the  crossing. 

But  if  one  needs  be  careful  of  his  own  hide,  it  is 
quite  as  important  that  he  be  careful  of  the  other 
fellow's  anatomy.  It  is  easy  to  say  of  the  pedes- 
trian, or  the  man  in  another  vehicle,  let  him  keep 
out  of  the  way,  or  keep  to  his  own  side  of  the 
road;  well,  if  he  don't,  you  can  keep  out  of  his  way 
and  you  will  be  a  great  deal  happier  at  the  end 
of  your  trip  than  if  you  disregard  him  and  there 
is  an  accident.  One  hardly  likes  to  contemplate 
even  an  unavoidable  injury  to  another. 

It  must  be  remembered,  also,  that  the  pedestrian 
has  rights  upon  the  highway  greater  than  the  auto 


Where  Extra  Caution  Is  Necessary  183 

driver.  It  is  popular  to  talk  about  the  "jay- 
hawker"  and  to  assume  that  the  man  on  foot  has 
few  rights  in  the  road,  whereas  he  has  the  first 
right,  according  to  the  United  States  Supreme 
Court,  and  no  amount  of  traffic  rules  and  ordi- 
nances and  laws  can  affect  his  right.  Without 
respect  to  the  wisdom  of  his  doing  it,  the  man 
afoot  has  the  right  to  travel  in  the  middle  of  the 
road  if  he  cares  to,  and  it  is  the  duty  of  the  driver 
to  keep  out  of  his  'way.  Remembrance  of  this 
may  save  the  driver  damages  in  large  amount,  for 
the  courts  will  assess  the  careless  driver,  or  the 
careful  driver  for  that  matter,  if  the  pedestrian 
is  hurt  and  asks  damages. 


CHAPTER  XXVII 

AN  AUTO  FURNACE  FOR  WINTER 

HAVE  you  a  little  hot  air  furnace  on  your  car? 
You  need  one  on  frosty  mornings  unless  you  want 
the  engine  to  act  as  though  it  had  an  acute  attack 
of  bronchitis  for  half  or  three-quarters  of  an  hour. 
Maybe  you'll  also  need  to  get  out  the  teakettle 
and  some  more  extras  to  get  started  in  proper 
shape.  A  lot  of  men  borrow  their  wives'  dishrags 
also  to  help  start  the  cars.  Great  help,  too. 

There  is  not  a  bit  of  foolishness  about  this  as 
the  man  who  has  a  car  will  appreciate,  if  he  has 
tried  to  start  it  with  the  temperature  down  at  the 
freezing  point  and  a  wind  blowing  that  would 
carry  off  the  engine  heat  so  fast  the  metal  would 
remain  cold.  Probably  most  other  folks  have 
noticed  that  a  lot  of  cars  sputter  and  cough  and 
spit  and  pop  as  though  all  kinds  of  trouble  were 
going  on  inside,  and  the  experienced  ear  can  detect 
many  a  six-cylinder  hitting  only  on  two  of  the 
cylinders,  while  many  a  flivver  is  chug-chugging 
184 


An  Auto  Furnace  for  Winter        185 

away  like  one  of  the  old  one-lungers  of  ancient 
auto  days.  Not  only  is  this  at  the  start,  but  for 
blocks  and  even  miles. 

Now  to  a  novice,  the  new  owner,  the  first  in- 
clination would  be  to  cuss  the  manufacturer  and 
the  engine.  It  isn't  the  fault  of  the  engine  at  all; 
it  is  because  ' '  the  gasoline  doesn't  gas. "  However 
there  is  a  solution  of  the  problem,  at  least  enough 
of  a  remedy  to  make  life  a  little  happier  for  the 
owner. 

This  condition  of  gas  was  absent  for  several 
years.  In  the  early  days  of  automobile  construc- 
tion, before  the  manufacturers  were  able  to  devise 
a  carburetor  for  vaporizing  gasoline  under  all 
conditions,  we  had  this  same  trouble  as  soon  as 
the  weather  turned  cold.  Persistent  experiments 
produced  a  carburetor  which  overcame  the  trouble. 
Then  almost  as  soon  as  a  carburetor  was  developed 
which  would  vaporize  the  gasoline  under  adverse 
conditions,  somehow  the  volatility  of  the  gasoline 
was  found  to  have  decreased. 

You  will  remember  the  contest  between  armor 
plate  and  big  guns — as  soon  as  an  impenetrable 
armor  plate  was  invented,  some  genius  would  go 
ahead  and  find  a  powder  or  gun  which  would  shatter 
the  impenetrable  plate.  Then  the  armor  factory 
would  try  to  find  something  to  outwit  the  gun 


i86     Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

maker.  That  is  the  way  with  carburetor  and 
gasoline.  It  is  time  for  the  carburetor  maker  to 
devise  a  scheme  to  volatilize  the  heavy  gasoline 
now  supplied  under  all  conditions — particularly  in 
cold  weather.  There  are  signs  that  he  is  matching 
up  to  the  emergency. 

It  is  true  that  the  gasoline  now  sold  has  a  greater 
heat-producing  quality,  if  only  we  can  get  it  pro- 
perly mixed  and  volatilized.  It  may  be  that  the 
gasoline  producers,  by  putting  heavier  gasoline  on 
the  market,  have  been  of  a  real  service  to  auto 
men,  once  we  have  learned  to  utilize  it  economically 
and  efficiently.  They  may  have  had  in  mind  the 
higher  power,  but  they  have  given  us  a  gas  which 
is  very  hard  to  vaporize  on  a  frosty  morning. 
Sometime  soon,  probably  the  carburetor  man  will 
catch  up  and  give  us  a  vaporizer  which  will  handle 
it.  Until  they  do,  we  will  have  to  look  for  means 
of  overcoming  the  difficulties  now  experienced,  and 
it  is  largely  a  question  of  warming  up  the  air. 

In  changing  gasoline  from  liquid  to  vapor, 
considerable  heat  must  be  supplied.  When  the 
atmospheric  temperature  is  too  low,  there  is  not 
sufficient  heat  in  it  to  vaporize  the  gasoline  sprayed 
into  the  carburetor.  When  the  engine  is  warm, 
the  process  of  vaporization  goes  on  from  the 
needle  valve  to  the  moment  of  ignition,  but  if  the 


An  Auto  Furnace  for  Winter        187 

engine  is  cold,  the  process  is  retarded  more  or  less, 
and  under  some  conditions  it  is  possible  for  thor- 
oughly vaporized  gasoline  to  be  again  condensed. 
The  man  who  does  not  understand  is  inclined  to 
say  uncomplimentary  things  about  the  engine 
and  talk  about  ''fireproof  gasoline."  The  only 
trouble  is  that  the  temperature  is  so  low  that  we 
must  heat  the  air  before  we  send  it  into  the  car- 
buretor. Practically  all  the  carburetor  manu- 
facturers put  out  a  "stove  "  to  heat  the  air  supply, 
which  is  attached  around  the  exhaust  pipe,  so  that 
the  hot  air  surrounding  the  pipe  is  conveyed  to 
the  carburetor,  which  warms  the  air  entering  the 
intake,  thus  supplying  the  heat  necessary  to  effect 
vaporization.  This  "stove"  or  gas  wanner,  the 
chauffeurs  are  beginning  to  call  a ' '  hot-air  furnace. ' ' 

The  process  of  vaporization  absorbs  a  large 
amount  of  heat.  To  raise  the  temperature  of  the 
liquid  one  degree  takes  a  certain  amount  of  heat. 
The  amount  required  per  degree  remains  the 
same  until  the  point  of  vaporization  is  reached, 
when  two  hundred  times  that  amount  of  heat  is 
required  to  effect  vaporization.  The  "hot-air 
furnace"  supplies  the  extra  amount  of  heat. 

A  great  many  carburetors  have  the  mixing 
chamber  water- jacketed  and  the  water  from  the 
cooling  system  is  circulated  through  it,  supplying 


1 88     Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

some  heat  in  that  way.  Sometimes  that  in  itself 
is  sufficient,  but  at  present  it  seems  advisable  to 
use  both.  Neither  one  of  these  is  in  operation 
when  the  engine  is  started;  the  "hot-air  furnace" 
depends  upon  the  exhaust  pipe  being  heated,  and 
the  water-jacket  upon  the  engine  itself  being  heated 
long  enough  to  warm  up  the  circulating  water. 
So  that  it  becomes  necessary  to  find  some  means 
to  supply  heat  until  these  warm  up. 

When  the  car  is  started  in  a  warm  garage  the 
gasoline  will  vaporize  properly  and  the  engine  will 
run  in  good  shape,  but  as  soon  as  the  car  goes 
out  into  the  cold  air  it  will  cool  the  engine  so  that 
some  of  the  gasoline  will  be  condensed.  Therefore 
we  close  the  radiator  cover  partly  or  wholly  until 
the  engine  is  thoroughly  warmed.  If  the  car  is 
started  in  a  cold  garage,  the  teakettle  and  dishrag 
method  must  be  resorted  to.  Wrap  the  cloth 
around  the  carburetor  so  that  it  does  not  cover  the 
air  intake,  and  pour  the  boiling  water  on  the  rag, 
taking  care  that  none  gets  in  the  air  intake.  The 
hot  water  will  heat  the  carburetor  and  intake 
pipe  and  raise  the  temperature  of  the  mixture  so 
that  the  engine  will  run.  In  some  cases  it  may  be 
necessary  even  to  drain  out  the  cooling  system 
and  fill  it  with  hot  water,  so  that  the  combustion 
chamber  becomes  heated  up. 


An  Auto  Furnace  for  Winter        189 

As  the  weather  becomes  colder  it  will  be  found 
necessary,  no  doubt,  to  close  up  the  radiator  more 
and  more  in  order  to  keep  the  engine  at  the  re- 
quired temperature.  High  engine  temperature, 
up  to  the  point  where  the  water  in  the  cooling 
system  begins  to  boil,  is  desirable  from  the  stand- 
point of  efficiency,  and  if  no  trouble  is  experienced 
with  irregular  running,  the  hotter  the  engine  is,  the 
larger  amount  of  power  is  developed. 

One  manufacturer  has  incorporated  in  the 
radiator  a  shutter-like  device,  by  means  of  which 
the  amount  of  air  admitted  may  be  regulated 
from  the  driver's  seat.  Doubtless  others  will 
follow,  or  find  an  equally  good  substitute. 

Radiator  covers  to  fit  almost  any  car  now  made 
may  be  procured  at  trifling  expense ;  one  may  simply 
put  a  piece  of  cardboard  over  it.  Being  out  with- 
out a  cover  recently  when  the  engine  did  not  work 
right,  the  author  stopped  when  he  came  to  a 
newsboy  and  bought  a  paper  and  tied  it  over  the 
radiator,  getting  home  all  right  with  this  sub- 
stitute. 

One  man  complained  that  his  car  would  start 
out  well  and  run  all  right  as  long  as  he  was  going 
away  from  home,  but  as  soon  as  he  turned  home- 
ward it  would  begin  to  act  up.  He  wanted  to 
know  if  the  car  had  the  wanderlust.  Inquiry 


190     Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

developed  the  fact  that  the  trips  he  spoke  of  on 
the  going  trip  were  with  the  wind  and  returning 
against  it.  The  added  force  of  the  wind  over  the 
engine  cooled  the  engine  too  much,  and  he  was 
advised  to  cover  the  radiator  under  such  circum- 
stances. He  reported  no  trouble  after  trying  it. 

Of  course,  sometimes,  the  skipping  can  be  over- 
come by  enriching  the  mixture  by  the  dash  control, 
but  with  the  present  heavy  gasoline  the  enriched 
mixture  does  not  seem  to  do  much  good  and  is 
simply  adding  to  the  supply  of  gasoline  which 
already  is  refusing  to  vaporize.  Therefore  it 
seems  to  be  the  stove  and  the  dishrag  for  the 
cold  engine. 


CHAPTER  XXVIII 

THE    COOLING    SYSTEM    IN   WINTER 

WHILE  there  are  many  sections  of  the  country 
where  it  is  necessary  to  put  the  car  away  for  that 
portion  of  the  year  when  the  ground  is  covered 
with  snow  and  ice,  and  for  that  reason  many  cars 
are  put  in  storage,  yet  there  are  sections  where 
this  is  not  necessary.  And  likewise,  in  the 
Northern  cities,  where  the  snow  is  cleared  from 
the  streets  after  every  storm,  the  improvement 
in  carburetors  and  the  adoption  of  heating  de- 
vices have  made  it  possible  to  keep  the  car  in 
commission  where  formerly  it  was  thought  im- 
possible. 

There  are  two  things  necessary  if  the  car  is  to 
be  operated  in  winter,  the  first  of  which  is  some 
anti-freezing  solution  for  the  cooling  system;  the 
second  is  a  device  for  warming  the  mixture  before 
admission  to  the  cylinders. 

Many  things  have  been  tried  for  making  the 
cooling  system  freeze-proof.  The  most  common 
191 


192     Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

are  salt,  glycerin,  and  alcohol.  Any  one  of  these 
in  the  proper  proportion  will  insure  against 
freezing.  They  are  not  equally  desirable,  however. 
Salt  has  a  tendency  to  set  up  electrolitic  action 
where  iron  and  brass  parts  are  combined  in  the 
cooling  system,  but  four  pounds  of  salt  to  the 
gallon  will  give  a  solution  which  will  not  freeze 
until  seventeen  degrees  below  zero,  Fahrenheit,  is 
reached.  Glycerin  will  keep  the  water  from 
freezing,  but  it  is  expensive  and  if  rubber  hose  is 
used  to  connect  radiator  and  the  cylinder  pipes, 
glycerin  will  cause  it  to  decompose  rapidly. 

Denatured  alcohol  probably  is  the  best  to  use, 
mixed  with  water  in  proportion  as  the  cold  to 
be  expected  may  demand.  Twenty  per  cent,  of 
alcohol  will  give  protection  to  five  degrees  above 
zero ;  thirty  per  cent,  to  nine  degrees  below  zero, 
and  thirty-five  per  cent,  to  sixteen  degrees  below. 
The  owner  must  not  make  the  error  of  using  a 
mixture  which  will  protect  him  only  for  the 
average  low  temperature  of  his  locality.  For 
thirty  years  the  average  minimum  for  the  vicinity 
of  New  York  City  was  twelve  degrees  above  zero. 
The  man  who  thought  he  was  playing  safe  with 
a  twenty-per-cent.  solution  would  have  ruined  his 
engine  on  one  of  the  days  while  this  material  was 
being  prepared,  for  the  temperature  went  to 


The  Cooling  System  in  Winter       193 

twenty  below  in  the  suburbs  and  to  seventeen 
below  in  the  city.  Unless  the  owner  had  foresight 
enough  to  drain  out  the  cooling  solution  there 
would  have  been  burst  radiator  and  pipes,  and 
perhaps  a  cracked  cylinder,  or  at  least  the  water- 
jacket,  to  be  replaced.  Even  a  thirty-five  per 
cent,  solution  would  not  have  saved  the  damage. 

Probably  a  combination  of  alcohol  and  glycerin 
will  suit  the  particular  owner  a  little  better  than 
alcohol  alone,  since  there  is  less  evaporation,  and 
a  single  dose  of  glycerin  will  last  the  entire  season, 
only  alcohol  and  water  needing  to  be  added  to 
replace  that  boiled  away  or  evaporated.  Half 
alcohol  and  half  glycerin  is  the  proper  proportion 
to  be  added  to  the  water.  It  has  one  advantage, 
that  it  freezes  quite  a  bit  lower  than  the  alcohol 
alone.  While  there  are  many  kinds  of  solutions 
sold  which  are  "guaranteed, "  the  owner  can  make 
his  own 'at  less  expense,  even  considering  prices 
of  alcohol  and  glycerin.  The  same  treatment 
must  be  given  to  an  acetylene  gas  producer,  since 
the  water  will  freeze  in  that  and  burst  the  tank. 

Another  thing  which  must  be  taken  into  account 
in  winter  is  the  wanning  of  the  mixture  for  starting 
so  that  it  does  not  condense  the  moment  it  strikes 
the  cold  cylinder  walls.  Modern  cars  are  pro- 
vided with  means  for  accomplishing  this  when 


194     Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

the  engine  has  started,  but  the  hot-water  jacket 
and  hot-air  furnace  depend  upon  a  warmed-up 
engine  for  their  availability,  and  for  starting  other 
means  must  be  devised.  It  may  often  be  wise  to 
drain  off  the  anti-freeze  solution  from  the  cooling 
system  and  substitute  hot  water  until  the  engine 
is  well  warmed  up,  then  replacing  the  anti-freeze 
mixture.  There  also  are  various  devices  for  heat- 
ing the  carburetor  and  intake  manifold  while  the 
engine  is  warming  up.  There  is  an  electric  heater, 
where  one  has  current  in  the  garage  and  other 
ways  of  accomplishing  the  same  thing.  If  no 
better  means  is  at  hand  a  hot-water  bottle  about 
half  full,  so  that  it  can  be  wrapped  about  the  mani- 
fold, may  do  it  all  right ;  or  a  cloth  wrapped  about 
the  manifold  and  carburetor  without  covering  the 
air  intake,  and  a  kettle  of  hot  water,  may  do  it 
satisfactorily.  These  methods  are  considered  more 
at  length  in  the  preceding  chapter. 

It  will  doubtless  be  found  necessary  to  prime  the 
engine  in  starting  in  cold  weather,  and  it  is  wise 
to  carry  a  squirt  can  for  this  purpose,  though  a 
piece  of  waste  saturated  from  the  carburetor  drip 
cock  and  squeezed  over  the  priming  cup  will  do 
the  trick.  If  there  are  no  priming  cups  it  means 
taking  out  the  spark  plugs. 

For  running  at  low  temperatures  it  will  be  found 


The  Cooling  System  in  Winter       195 

desirable,  if  indeed  not  necessary,  to  keep  the  anti- 
freeze solution  from  cooling  too  rapidly  and  thus 
retarding  combustion  in  the  cylinders.  Most  en- 
gines run  better  in  the  winter  when  the  fan  is 
disconnected  by  removing  the  belt.  When  it 
becomes  very  cold,  however,  other  means  must 
be  provided  in  the  way  of  radiator  covers.  These 
may  be  procured  at  any  supply  house,  fitted  to  any 
car.  They  are  in  various  forms,  usually  with  a 
curtain  which  may  be  lifted  for  moderate  tempera- 
tures and  closed  when  extremes  are  reached. 
Anything  which  will  cover  the  air  spaces  of  the 
radiator  may  be  used  in  an  emergency,  if  one  is 
caught  by  a  sudden  drop  in  the  temperature.  A 
blanket,  a  bag,  even  a  newspaper  or  wrapping 
paper  tied  on  will  work  properly  until  better 
provision  can  be  made. 

Care  of  the  lubrication  system  is  needed  also 
in  cold  weather,  since  oil  does  not  flow  the  same 
when  cold  as  when  warm.  Most  manufacturers 
give  a  schedule  of  oils  for  different  seasons  and 
this  should  be  followed  explicitly  for  best  results. 
The  owner  should  make  sure  that  the  oil  is  feeding 
through  the  system.  If  there  is  a  dash  sight  feed 
it  should  be  watched,  for  while  oil  does  not  freeze, 
it  does  get  very  viscid  and,  like  molasses,  flows 
stiff  at  low  temperatures.  However,  winter 


196     Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

lubrication  has  been  studied  by  engineers  for  a 
quarter  of  a  century  and  oils  which  are  suited  to 
all  climes  and  all  extremes  are  no  novelty.  The 
manufacturer  is  the  best  judge  of  the  oil  which 
will  work  most  satisfactorily  in  the  machine  he 
turns  out;  besides,  general  advice  could  not  be 
given  which  would  apply  to  all  cars.  As  a  rule 
the  man  who  sells  oil  should  not  be  taken  as  an 
adviser  in  lubrication.  In  case  of  doubt  go  to  the 
service  station,  if  within  reach,  for  advice. 

This  does  not  mean  that  an  owner  should  not 
substitute  a  different  brand  of  oil  when  he  cannot 
get  the  one  the  manufacturer  specifies;  but  he 
should  get  a  corresponding  quality  and  then 
watch  results  closely  until  a  supply  of  the  right 
kind  is  available.  Experience  and  study  will  be 
a  sufficient  guide  for  the  careful  owner. 


CHAPTER  XXIX 

OVERHEATING  THE  ENGINE  IN  SUMMER 

THE  automobile  engine  will  heat  up  too  quickly 
in  hot  weather,  just  as  an  individual  will.  No, 
we  did  not  say  overeat ;  though  if  you  let  the  engine 
gorge  itself  too  long  on  motor  fodder,  it  will  help 
to  overheat  as  well  as  overeat.  There  are  a 
variety  of  reasons  for  the  overheating,  which  it  is 
well  for  the  novice  to  understand. . 

Those  who  have  found  it  necessary  during  the 
winter  to  cover  the  radiator  and  take  off  the  fan 
belt  and  do  other  things  to  keep  the  engine  hot 
enough  to  run  smoothly  and  with  the  proper 
vaporization  and  firing,  may  find  in  summer 
that  they  are  having  as  much  or  more  trouble  in 
keeping  the  engine  cool  enough  to  run  properly. 

Generally  speaking,  the  nearer  to  the  boiling 
point  we  can  run  the  engine  without  actually 
having  the  water  boil  and  steam  away,  the  more 
efficient  it  will  be.  Some  engines,  in  fact,  develop 
much  less  than  the  maximum  horse-power  because 
197 


198     Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

they  are  too  well  cooled,  and  yet  we  hear  a  great 
many  complaints  about  the  water  boiling  in  the 
radiator  and  the  engine  overheating. 

This  would  not  occur  if  everything  were  working 
as  the  designer  intended  it  should.  During  cold 
weather  the  man  who  drives  with  a  retarded 
spark  uses  up  more  gasoline  than  necessary,  but 
he  is  not  bothered  with  overheating.  When  the 
mercury  goes  up  he  finds  that  his  engine  overheats 
and  gives  him  trouble.  He  has  not  changed  his 
manner  of  driving,  and  cannot  understand  why 
there  should  be  trouble. 

Driving  the  engine  at  high  speed  with  the 
spark  retarded  is  one  very  good  way  of  overheating 
the  engine.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  battery 
ignition  systems  which  are  now  coming  more  into 
use  require  considerable  manipulation  of  the 
spark-control  lever,  and  the  tendency  is,  because 
the  engine  knocks  at  low  speed,  to  leave  the  lever 
partly  retarded,  instead  of  advancing  it,  when  a 
higher  speed  is  reached. 

With  the  magneto,  it  is  the  general  practice  to 
advance  the  lever  to  three-fourths  or  seven- 
eighths  of  the  full  range  right  after  the  engine  is 
started  and  leave  it  there  for  practically  all  work, 
except  very  high  speeds.  This  may  be  done 
largely  with  such  a  system,  because  the  nature 


Overheating  the  Engine  in  Summer  199 

of  the  spark  given  by  the  magneto  changes  some- 
what with  the  speed  of  the  engine,  and  the  equiva- 
lent of  an  automatic  advance  and  retard  of  the 
spark  occurs  with  the  variation  of  speed  of  the 
motor.  With  the  battery  system,  however,  there 
is  very  little  change  in  the  nature  of  the  spark 
effected  by  the  engine  speed. 

A  frequent  cause  of  chronic  overheating  may  be 
traced  to  sediment  in  the  radiator  which  cuts  off 
free  radiation  of  the  heat.  This  usually  may  be 
removed  by  the  use  of  a  saturated  solution  of 
washing  soda  and  water.  With  the  advent  of 
summer  each  year  it  would  be  well  to  fill  the  cool- 
ing system  with  a  solution  of  this  sort  and  run  the 
engine  for  several  hours  and  then  drain  it  off  and 
refill  the  system  with  clean  water.  If  in  the 
system  used  a  pump  is  employed,  one  should  dis- 
connect the  upper  hose  from  the  radiator  and  run 
the  engine  to  pump  the  solution  out  of  the  system. 
At  the  same  time  water  from  a  hose  or  other 
source  should  be  fed  into  the  top  of  the  radiator 
as  fast  as  it  is  pumped  out,  and  thus  flush  the 
entire  system,  before  connecting  up  the  hose  again. 

Where  the  thermo-syphon  system  is  used,  which 
does  not  employ  a  pump,  this,  of  course,  cannot 
be  done,  but  one  should  remove  both  upper  and 
lower  hose  connections  after  running  the  engine 


2oo     Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

with  the  solution  and  wash  it  out  with  fresh  water 
as  well  as  possible.  A  hose  inserted  in  the  upper 
connection  probably  would  force  all  the  solution 
out  with  any  collection  of  sediment,  and  the  same 
process  with  the  radiator  ought  to  clean  it  out. 

Fan  belts  are  more  likely  to  get  out  of  order 
in  hot  weather  than  in  cold  weather ;  perhaps  this 
is  because  the  engine  throws  oil  or  grease  more 
readily  when  it  is  warm.  Belts  should  have 
grease  enough  to  keep  them  soft  and  pliable,  of 
course,  but  too  much  causes  slipping.  They 
should  be  wiped  free  of  all  oil  occasionally.  There 
is  always  a  belt  adjustment  and  this  should  be 
tightened  so  that  there  is  sufficient  tension  to 
drive  the  fan  at  all  engine  speeds. 

Some  engines  have  the  spokes  of  the  fly-wheel 
shaped  to  form  a  fan,  and  where  this  is  the  case 
the  oil  pan  and  hood  should  be  kept  tight  so  that 
air  will  be  drawn  through  the  radiator  rather  than 
through  other  openings.  If  the  radiator  is  not 
kept  free  from  oil  the  outside  passages  will  very 
quickly  collect  dust,  which  will  prevent  a  free 
flow  of  air  and  cut  off  radiating  surface,  which 
also  occurs  when  the  front  of  the  radiator  is 
smeared  too  thickly  with  paint. 

Pumps  do  wear  out,  but  this  is  one  of  the  last 
places  to  look  for  trouble.  The  action  of  the 


Overheating  the  Engine  in  Summer  201 

pump  may  be  determined  usually  by  removing 
the  radiator  filler  cap  when  the  engine  is  running 
and  noting  whether  the  water  is  circulating,  but 
if  a  baffle  plate  is  placed  in  the  filler  opening,  it 
cannot  be  seen,  and  a  test  may  be  made  in  the 
same  manner  in  which  the  cleaning  solution  is 
washed  out,  namely,  by  removing  the  top  hose 
from  the  radiator  and  running  the  engine,  while 
supplying  water  through  the  filler  opening. 

With  the  thermo-syphon  system  there  is  very 
little  pressure  generated  and  a  slight  obstruction 
will  stop  the  flow  of  water.  Therefore  it  is  more 
necessary  to  keep  the  system  free  from  sediment 
and  to  see  that  the  gaskets  at  the  joints  are  made 
with  circular  openings  of  the  right  sizes  so  as  not  to 
obstruct  the  flow  of  water.  Likewise  water  must  be 
kept  above  the  top  hose  of  the  radiator  in  order  to 
have  any  circulation  in  this  type  of  cooling  system. 

Another  cause  of  overheating,  which  it  has  been 
found  very  difficult  to  locate,  comes  from  care- 
lessness in  stretching  the  hose  over  the  pipe.  In 
doing  this  sometimes  the  inner  lining  of  the  hose  is 
loosened  and  folds  back,  covering  the  opening  of 
the  pipe,  so  that  water  does  not  flow  freely.  It 
looks  all  right  from  the  outside,  but  an  exami- 
nation of  the  inside  will  show  that  it  is  almost 
entirely  clogged  at  the  end.  Also,  the  lining  of  the 


2O2     Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

hose  will  often  loosen  up  and  pieces  will  lodge 
where  they  cut  off  the  circulation. 

Keep  the  engine  free  from  carbon  and  keep  the 
valve  push  rods  adjusted  close,  have  the  mixture 
as  lean  as  possible  and  be  sure  the  exhaust  from  the 
muffler  is  free.  Taking  care  of  these  things  and 
seeing  that  the  other  things  mentioned  are  all 
right,  will  prevent  most  of  the  overheating  which 
troubles  the  novice,  if,  indeed,  not  all  of  it. 

They  are  things  which  should  not  be  trusted 
entirely  to  chauffeur  or  garage  man,  but  the  owner 
should  learn  how  to  take  care  of  them  himself; 
then  if  he  wants  to  hire  it  done  he  will  know  if  it  is 
being  done  according  to  his  orders  and  will  recog- 
nize the  symptoms  when  anything  goes  wrong. 
It  may  take  a  little  time  and  get  one's  hands  some- 
what soiled,  but  it  pays  in  the  long  run,  not  alone 
in  the  saving  of  labor  but  in  the  absence  of  an- 
noyance when  out  on  a  trip.  It  is  far  from 
pleasant  to  have  to  stop  along  a  hot  roadside  to 
make  repairs  which  should  have  been  done  in  the 
garage,  with  probable  delay  and  consequent  up- 
setting of  the  schedule.  Therefore,  it  behooves 
the  owner  to  look  after  these  things  before  starting 
out  and  to  learn  his  car  so  well  that  he  will  antici- 
pate troubles  and  by  removing  causes  save  time 
and  money. 


CHAPTER  XXX 

SOME  OTHER  HOT-WEATHER  TIPS 

THERE  are  a  number  of  other  points  which 
should  be  borne  in  mind  by  auto  owners  with 
the  coming  of  hot  weather,  if  the  most  efficient 
service  is  to  be  had  from  the  car. 

One  of  the  Y.  M.  C.  A.  secretaries  excitedly 
called  the  school  to  ask  why  a  seemingly  good  tire 
should  blow  out  after  a  short  run.  A  few  minutes 
later  another  secretary  put  the  same  inquiry  with 
variations.  That  is,  he  had  a  tire  which  was 
rather  old,  but  it  had  been  inflated  for  two  weeks 
and  had  been  running  every  day  since  inflation, 
when  it  tested  eighty  pounds'  pressure.  It  had 
blown  out. 

The  first  secretary  had  been  invited  by  a  friend 
to  take  a  ride.  He  had  watched  the  tires  inflated 
and  all  other  bits  of  preparedness  and  saw  that 
nothing  was  overlooked,  and  settled  down  for  a 
fine  ride.  The  blow-out  came  about  five  miles 
away. 

203 


2O4     Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

The  trouble  with  both  was  that  they  had  not 
taken  into  account  the  fact  that  summer  was  at 
hand.  Experienced  drivers  know  that  in  hot 
weather,  whether  it  is  according  to  rules  or  not, 
it  is  better  not  to  keep  the  tire  pressure  so  high 
as  during  the  cold  months,  even  though  it  means 
more  wear  on  the  tires. 

Considerable  heat  is  generated  by  rolling  a  tire 
over  the  ground.  This  heat  expands  the  air  in  the 
tire  and  increases  the  pressure.  In  the  winter  this 
heat  is  absorbed  to  a  large  extent  by  the  cold 
atmosphere  and  the  cold  and  wet  pavements,  and 
therefore  the  pressure  does  not  vary  so  much.  In 
the  summer  the  roads  are  very  hot,  the  air  tem- 
perature is  high,  and  the  heat  generated  by  friction 
is  not  carried  off  to  any  appreciable  extent. 

On  a  recent  summer  trip  the  writer  noticed  that 
the  car  was  riding  harder  than  usual  and  a  test 
of  the  pressure  on  the  tires  developed  the  fact  that 
it  was  above  normal.  To  find  out  just  what  the 
difference  in  pressure  would  be,  the  pressure  for 
each  tire  was  taken  before  leaving  the  garage  next 
morning.  After  rolling  about  forty  miles  at  an 
average  speed  of  thirty  miles  an  hour,  the  pressure 
was  again  tested.  It  had  increased  about  twelve 
pounds  on  each  tire. 

Several  tire  manufacturers  insist  that  owners 


Some  Other  Hot- Weather  Tips      205 

shall  not  carry  less  pressure  on  tires  in  hot  weather, 
saying  that  the  increased  pressure  due  to  heat  is  not 
sufficient  to  materially  affect  their  make.  This 
probably  is  true  for  new  tires,  or  for  about  two- 
thirds  of  their  guaranteed  life,  but  if  the  tire  has 
been  weakened,  through  having  been  run  under- 
inflated,  or  from  fabric  deterioration  through 
cuts  in  the  tread,  there  is  danger  from  the  increase 
in  pressure  due  to  heat. 

More  tires  are  damaged  by  under -inflation  than 
by  over -inflation,  because  the  former  breaks  down 
the  side  walls  through  running  flat,  in  practically 
every  case,  while  the  over-inflation  causes  a  blow- 
out only  when  the  tire  is  weak  at  some  point.  It 
would  be  good  practice,  however,  on  hot  summer 
days,  to  leave  the  garage  with  the  tire  pressure 
about  ten  pounds  less  than  that  specified  by  the 
manufacturer  as  being  correct  for  his  make.  Any 
driver  ought  to  test  out  his  tires  after  running 
at  a  good  clip  on  a  hot  day  and  find  out  just  what 
they  do.  A  little  persistence  would  enable  him 
to  understand  how  much  his  tires  heat  up  and  he 
could  regulate  the  pressure  accordingly. 

Manufacturers  of  high-pressure  tires  resent 
the  above  advice  and  declare  that  it  is  wrong. 
The  succeeding  chapter  tells  of  definite  tests 
made  and  the  owner  can  draw  his  own  inferences 


206     Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

and  decide  for  himself  whether  he  wants  high 
tire  mileage,  or  comfort  with  pretty  good  tire 
mileage. 

There  are  some  other  hot-weather  points  which 
it  might  be  well  to  keep  in  mind  if  one  would  get 
the  best  results  from  the  car.  One  of  these  is 
the  care  of  the  carburetor.  It  will  be  found 
usually  that  not  quite  so  much  gasoline  is  required 
as  in  cold  weather,  and  therefore  the  dash  adjust- 
ment may  be  carried  a  little  nearer  the  lean,  or 
air,  side.  This  not  only  saves  gasoline,  but  in- 
creases the  power  of  the  motor,  for  a  too  heavy 
mixture  makes  it  run  logy. 

It  will  be  found  also  that  in  most  cases  the  hot- 
air  stove  of  the  carburetor  may  be  dispensed  with 
or  adjusted.  Usually  provision  is  made  on  Nthe 
hot-air  stoves  for  allowing  some  cold  air  to  enter, 
or  to  take  cold  air  entirely.  Where  the  carburetor 
is  water- jacketed,  there  usually  is  a  valve  that 
may  be  closed  to  prevent  the  flow  of  hot  water. 
Experiment  will  determine  whether  it  is  advisable 
to  cut  out  the  heat  entirely  on  the  individual 
carburetor,  since  all  are  not  benefited  by  the 
change. 

The  water  in  the  storage  battery  will  evaporate 
more  quickly  in  hot  weather  and  where  it  has  been 
necessary  to  replenish  it  once  in  two  weeks  in  the 


Some  Other  Hot- Weather  Tips      207 

winter,  it  will  need  to  be  done  every  week  in  hot 
weather.  This  is  not  entirely  due  to  evaporation 
from  heat  but  is  accounted  for  in  part  by  the  fact 
that  the  engine  starts  easier  and  therefore  less 
current  is  used  for  starting;  also  there  is  more 
daylight  and  the  lamps  are  used  less.  Therefore 
the  battery  is  more  often  in  a  fully  charged 
condition,  and  in  this  condition  the  charging 
current  causes  more  gas  than  when  the  battery  is 
lower.  This  is  due  to  the  chemical  action  which 
decomposes  the  water,  the  hydrogen  and  oxygen 
gases  passing  off  through  the  vent  holes ;  the  water 
escapes  from  this  cause  as  gas  and  not  as  vapor, 
as  it  does  when  there  is  evaporation. 

In  hot  weather  city  streets  are  generally  sprin- 
kled regularly  and  the  country  roads  are  oiled 
some  time  during  the  season.  The  novice  going 
behind  a  street  sprinkler,  or  reaching  an  oiled 
stretch  of  road,  should  exercise  particular  care  to 
prevent  skidding,  as  he  would  be  unlikely  to  realize 
the  danger  unless  he  has  experienced  it  once. 
This  is  explained  fully  in  the  part  of  this  book 
devoted  to  skidding. 

Hot  weather  softens  grease,  so  that  trouble 
may  be  experienced  through  grease  or  oil  seeping 
out  of  transmission  or  differential  cases,  or  from 
the  grease  cups.  Many  manufacturers  recom- 


208     Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

mend  a  heavier  grease  for  summer  than  for 
winter  to  give  the  greatest  efficiency.  This 
softening  of  the  grease  is  likely  to  make  a  little 
ring  of  grease  around  each  cup,  which  will  collect 
dust  and  give  the  car  an  unkempt  appearance, 
besides  there  is  the  possibility  of  some  of  the  dust 
working  into  the  bearing.  Grease  cups  must  be 
kept  turned  down  so  that  the  dust  is  forced  out, 
and  then  it  should  be  carefully  wiped  off. 

Every  bearing  needs  additional  care  to  keep 
dust  out  and  lubricant  in,  but  every  moment  spent 
in  this  way  pays  dividends  in  expense  saved  and 
comfort  and  freedom  from  annoyance  on  the  road, 
so  that  the  owner  will  do  well  to  take  note  that 
hot  weather  calls  for  added  care  and  precautions. 


CHAPTER  XXXI 

HOT-WEATHER   TIRE   EXPANSION 

THERE  is  considerable  question  whether  the 
pressure  on  tires  should  be  decreased  during  the 
hot  summer  days.  Tire  manufacturers  claim,  as 
a  rule,  that  tires  heat  more  on  low  pressure  than 
when  run  at  the  full  pressure  given  by  them.  They 
claim  that  even  a  slight  decrease  to  offset  any  in- 
crease from  heating,  because  of  warmer  tempera- 
ture of  the  air,  friction,  and  the  hot  pavements,  will 
injure  the  tires.  On  the  other  hand,  drivers  of 
long  experience  insist  that  the  car  should  be  started 
out  with  the  tires  softer  than  in  cold  weather. 
Still  others  insist  that  the  tire  pressure  demanded 
by  the  manufacturer  makes  the  tire  too  hard  for 
comfort  and  that  when  the  pressure  is  increased 
by  heat  it  makes  the  tire  as  hard  as  one  of  solid 
rubber.  There  is  some  truth  on  both  sides. 

There  has  been  considerable  criticism  of  the 
conclusions  drawn  from  the  writer's  experience 
with  tires  while  on  a  summer  tour,  related  in  the 
14  209 


210     Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

previous  chapter.  He  stated  that  there  was  a 
twelve-pound  increase  in  a  forty-mile  run.  This 
was  disputed.  Tests  prove  that  he  was  right  and 
that  in  city  driving  tires  ordinarily  heat  up  even 
when  the  conditions  are  not  extreme. 

To  determine  what  effect  the  hot  weather  has  on 
tires  in  the  city,  the  author  drove  a  3200-pound 
Model  L  Locomobile,  equipped  all  around  with 
34  X  43^2  inch  tires,  through  the  park  and  on  River- 
side Drive  for  fifteen  miles  at  ordinary  city-traffic 
speed,  which  always  is  under  twenty  miles  an  hour. 
The  thermometer  registered  86  degrees  and  the 
day  was  partly  overcast,  so  that  the  full  effect 
of  the  sun  on  the  pavements  was  not  obtained. 
The  tires  were  inflated  to  full  90  pounds,  which  is 
the  pressure  recommended  by  many  manufacturers. 

At  the  end  of  the  run,  one  tire  registered  101 
pounds,  two  were  100  pounds,  and  one  was  99 
pounds.  The  conditions  were  not  excessive  in 
any  way  and  the  weather  was  not  abnormal,  the 
road  was  smooth  except  for  very  short -stretches, 
the  speed  was  low,  and  the  tires  were  of  ample 
size  for  the  weight  of  car  and  load. 

After  the  test  run,  a  gauge  was  made  to  test 
the  flattening  effect  on  the  tire  from  a  lowered 
pressure.  With  the  car  loaded  it  was  necessary  to 
decrease  the  pressure  in  the  tire  to  65  pounds  to 


Hot- Weather  Tire  Expansion        211 

have  •&  inch  bulge  of  the  side  of  the  tire.  At 
70  pounds  pressure  there  was  no  flattening  per- 
ceptible by  the  use  of  the  gauge. 

It  is  certain  that  more  tires  are  damaged  by 
under-inflation  than  by  over-inflation,  also  that 
perfect  new  tires  will  stand  more  than  20  pounds 
over-inflation  without  damage  to  them.  But  it  is 
reasonable  to  believe  that,  if  a  tire  has  become 
weakened  from  any  cause,  it  will  blow  out  quicker 
under  increased  pressure.  It  is  also  a  fact  that  a 
tire  inflated  to  the  pressure  recommended  by  many 
manufacturers  has  very  little  resiliency,  and  the 
riding  qualities  of  the  car  are  very  greatly  im- 
paired, and  when  the  pressure  rises  slightly  higher 
the  tire  loses  its  chief  function,  that  of  absorbing 
the  small  road  shocks.  Anyone  who  has  had  the 
experience  of  riding  on  hard  tires  knows  the 
discomfort  of  it ;  one  might  about  as  well  ride  on 
solid  tires. 

But  all  this  comes  back  to  the  question:  What 
is  under-inflation?  A  tire  with  ten  pounds  less 
pressure  than  recommended  probably  will  heat 
more  than  when  carrying  a  full  pressure;  but  it 
will  very  quickly  come  up  to  the  required  pressure 
when  the  car  is  run. 

As  the  pressure  recommended  by  many  manu- 
facturers is  the  extreme  so  far  as  comfort  in  riding 


212     Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

is  concerned,  the  car  owner  must  take  his  choice 
between  comfort  and  tire  mileage,  assuming  that 
a  slightly  less  pressure  does  decrease  the  life  of  the 
tire.  Presumably  the  average  owner  would  rather 
have  comfortable  riding,  even  at  the  expense  of 
tire  mileage,  and  we  are  not  prepared  to  admit  that 
decreased  mileage  would  be  an  inevitable  result 
with  ten  pounds  less  pressure.  Beyond  question 
the  average  man  would  not  use  a  substitute  for 
gasoline  which  gave  him  all  sorts  of  discomfort 
because  it  did  not  run  the  engine  smoothly,  even 
if  it  gave  a  slightly  greater  mileage  to  the  gallon. 

One  manufacturer  of  fabric  tires  recommends 
56  pounds  pressure  for  a  4-inch  tire  and  guarantees 
5000  miles,  and  makes  the  claim  that  this  pressure 
makes  riding  much  more  comfortable.  Another 
well-known  manufacturer  advises  inflating  the 
tire  only  to  the  point  where  there  is  no  bulge  or 
flattening,  and  another  type  of  pneumatic  tire 
has  become  very  popular  because  it  requires  still 
less  pressure  and  makes  riding  that  much  more 
pleasurable. 

Where  tires  are  hard  and  roads  are  rough,  the 
machine  jumps  around  so  that  it  is  more  likely  to 
jump  off  the  road,  therefore  there  is  an  element 
of  safety  as  well  as  comfort  involved. 

For  all  around  comfort,  though  possibly  with 


Hot- Weather  Tire  Expansion       213 

lessened  tire  mileage,  the  conclusion  is  reached 
that  a  ten-pound  decrease  in  pressure  in  hot 
summer  weather  is  desirable.  The  tire  cannot  be 
damaged  much,  because  after  a  very  few  minutes 
on  really  hot  pavements  the  pressure  will  equal 
that  recommended  by  the  most  exacting  manu- 
facturer and  any  overheating  due  to  this  cause 
would  be  a  matter  of  very  short  duration. 
^As  was  said  in  the  previous  chapter,  the  wise 
owner  will  test  out  his  car  and  tires  and  find  out 
just  the  proper  amount  of  decrease  the  tires  will 
stand.  He  will  then  have  to  decide  whether  he 
wants  the  highest  amount  of  tire  mileage  or  the 
highest  amount  of  comfort  and  act  accordingly. 

It  is  beside  the  argument,  but  a  matter  of  fact, 
that  a  certain  tire  salesman,  a  fellow  who  is  quite 
insistent  upon  a  certain  pressure  being  maintained, 
makes  it  his  invariable  practice  to  deflate  his  tires 
ten  pounds  in  hot  weather;  he  wants  tire  mileage, 
too. 

All  of  which  goes  to  show  that  some  people 
do  not  always  practice  what  they  preach,  or  take 
the  medicine  they  give  to  others. 


CHAPTER  XXXII 

GUARDING  AGAINST   FIRE 

THE  education  of  automobile  owners  and  chauf- 
feurs is  decreasing  the  number  of  cars  which  go  up 
in  smoke,  but  there  still  are  cases  enough  to  require 
a  word  of  warning  as  to  causes  and  prevention. 
Automobile  fires  sometimes  come  from  causes 
not  ordinarily  considered  under  the  control  of 
the  driver.  However,  a  little  extra  caution  in  a 
few  matters  will  render  the  motorist  practically 
free  from  danger. 

Of  course,  the  principal  cause  of  automobile 
fires  is  from  back-firing.  Without  going  into  all 
the  causes  of  back-firing,  the  chief  one  is  too  lean 
a  mixture  fed  to  the  cylinders.  This  will  almost 
invariably  cause  back-fire  in  starting.  Really,  the 
chief  trouble  comes  in  starting  when  the  engine 
is  cold,  and  naturally  this  is  most  frequent  in  the 
winter.  When  there  is  a  back-fire  a  sheet  of  flame 
comes  from  the  air  intake  of  the  carburetor;  if 
214 


Guarding  Against  Fire  215 

there  is  anything  inflammable  in  that  vicinity,  it 
is  quite  likely  to  take  fire. 

Gasoline  vaporizes  so  rapidly  that  if  there  is 
gasoline  in  the  drip  pan  there  is  almost  sure  to 
be  a  sufficient  mixture  around  the  carburetor  to 
make  trouble.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  drip  pan 
under  the  carburetor  should  be  so  arranged  as  to 
allow  any  gasoline  to  be  drained  off  before  it  has 
had  time  to  vaporize.  Indeed,  there  ought  not 
to  be  very  much  gasoline  in  the  drip  pan  at  any 
time.  If  it  comes  from  a  leak  in  the  supply  pipe 
or  the  connection  to  the  carburetor,  the  leak 
should  be  repaired.  If  it  comes  from  an  overflow 
of  the  carburetor  due  to  poor  seating  of  the  float 
valve,  that  should  be  taken  apart  and  cleaned  so 
that  the  float  valve  will  seat  properly.  These  two 
things  are  practically  the  only  occasion  for  gasoline 
in  the  drip  pan. 

Another  cause  of  fire  may  be  in  running  for 
some  time  at  extreme  speed.  This  usually  will 
cause  the  exhaust  pipe  to  become  very  hot,  some- 
times to  glow.  The  exhaust  pipe  in  some  cases 
is  placed  close  to  the  woodwork  of  the  car,  which 
may  be  set  on  fire.  Particularly  is  this  true  if  the 
woodwork  has  an  accumulation  of  grease  and  oil, 
and  here  is  where  caution  will  have  a  beneficial 
effect.  The  owner  who  keeps  the  woodwork  free 


216     Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

from  oil  and  grease — cleans  it  off  regularly  and 
thoroughly — minimizes  the  danger  at  this  point. 

The  pipe  also  heats  up  when  the  engine  is  run 
with  a  greatly  retarded  spark.  Sometimes  the 
pipe  gets  red-hot  and  it  is  an  easy  matter  to 
ignite  the  woodwork.  Here  again  oil  or  grease 
would  increase  the  danger.  The  economical  opera- 
tor will  not  allow  grease  and  oil  to  be  wasted  in 
this  way,  aside  from  the  fact  that  grease,  oil,  and 
gasoline  in  drip  pan  or  carburetor  form  a  menace 
hard  to  overestimate. 

Fires  have  been  started  occasionally  by  opening 
the  muffler  "cut-out"  in  starting  up.  This  is 
particularly  dangerous  when  the  car  is  in  a  garage, 
where  usually  there  are  grease  and  gasoline  spilled 
around  on  the  floor,  giving  off  fumes  and  creat- 
ing a  danger  zone.  Occasionally  when  the  car  is 
standing  in  the  garage  the  supply  line  will  drip 
a  little.  It  may  be  all  right  when  the  gasoline  is 
flowing  into  the  carburetor  regularly,  but  when  it 
stands,  a  tiny  drip  will  make  a  considerable  mix- 
ture under  the  car.  A  leak,  so  small  as  to  be 
unnoticed  ordinarily,  when  continued  over  night 
will  cause  enough  mixture  to  be  dangerous.  If,  to 
aid  the  engine,  the  operator  opens  up  the  "cut- 
out," there  are  quite  likely  to  be  some  sparks 
flying  out.  Sparks  and  gas  mixture  are  a  very 


Guarding  Against  Fire  217 

perilous  combination  and  there  is  pretty  sure  to 
be  a  blazing  car  in  a  moment. 

Sometimes  in  filling  the  gasoline  tank  it  over- 
flows and  drips  down.  Perhaps  the  driver,  de- 
layed by  taking  on  gasoline,  is  in  a  hurry,  so  he 
opens  the  "cut-out"  and  finds  that  making  haste 
is  often  dangerous. 

Another  cause  of  fires  comes  from  short-circuit- 
ing of  the  ignition  or  lighting  systems  when  a 
storage  battery  is  used.  Occasionally  a  short- 
circuit  will  heat  one  of  the  wires  red-hot  and  burn 
off  the  insulation.  Then,  if  there  be  an  accumula- 
tion of  grease,  oil,  or  gasoline,  there  will  be  trouble. 

To  obviate  vibration,  some  chauffeurs  pack 
around  the  battery  with  used  waste,  which  is 
more  or  less  greasy.  It  is  possible  for  a  tool  to 
drop  down  on  the  battery  and  give  off  a  spark, 
or,  under  vibration,  a  series  of  sparks,  sufficient 
to  set  fire  to  the  waste.  It  is  on  record,  in  one 
of  the  old-style  cars,  that  a  cushion  spring  wore 
through  and  dropped  down  on  the  battery,  making 
a  spark  every  time  the  spring  touched  the  termi- 
nals, and  eventually  setting  fire  to  the  car.  The 
remedy  for  all  these  instances  is  very  obvious. 

Another  cause  of  fire,  which  has  been  written 
about  a  great  deal,  is  static  electricity,  which  is 
generated  when  gasoline  is  filtered  through  cha- 


218     Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

mois  under  certain  conditions.  Very  many  fun- 
nels have  a  chamois  strainer.  Gasoline  poured 
upon  chamois  creates  static  electricity.  It  is 
all  right  if  the  funnel  touches  the  gas  tank,  but  if 
it  does  not,  a  static  spark  is  very  likely  to  cross 
the  gap  and  set  fire  to  the  volatilizing  gasoline. 
The  remedy,  of  course,  is  either  not  to  use  chamois 
or  to  see  that  there  is  a  perfect  connection  between 
the  funnel  and  the  tank. 

Since  one  of  the  chief  troubles  is  the  back-firing 
when  the  car  is  started,  it  would  be  well  for  the 
owner,  when  starting  the  car  in  cold  weather,  to 
enrich  the  mixture  slightly;  this  will  prevent  the 
back-firing,  and  when  the  engine  is  well  started  the 
mixture  may  be  adjusted  to  the  proper  propor- 
tion. Most  cars  now  have  a  means  of  enriching 
the  mixture  on  the  dash. 

It  ought  not  to  be  necessary  to  suggest  the  wis- 
dom of  carrying  along  one  of  the  approved  fire  ex- 
tinguishers, but  it  is  a  fact  that  very  many  owners 
"  take  a  chance."  The  insurance  companies  make 
a  reduction  in  the  premium  when  a  fire  extinguisher 
is  carried,  which  is  a  pretty  good  indication  that 
they  consider  it  a  valuable  accessory  on  the  car. 
Some  companies  insist  that  one  be  carried. 

Inasmuch  as  fires  may  occur  even  with  the  most 
careful  operator,  from  causes  beyond  his  control, 


Guarding  Against  Fire  219 

such  as  the  accidental  short-circuit,  or  the  care- 
lessness of  others,  it  may  be  out  of  place  to  suggest 
that  the  owner  of  a  valuable  car,  or  one  who  really 
cares,  insure  his  car.  Rates  are  fairly  reasonable, 
and  if  insurance  ever  is  good  it  surely  ought  to  be 
in  the  case  of  an  automobile,  where  several  thou- 
sands of  dollars  are  often  centered  in  a  very  small 
compass. 


CHAPTER   XXXIII 

DON'T  RUN  AWAY  FROM  A  FIRE 

WHATEVER  may  be  the  cause  of  a  fire  in  your 
automobile,  do  not  run  away  from  it.  Stay  and 
fight  the  fire.  Often  the  utmost  haste  is  needed 
in  getting  out  of  the  car  when  a  fire  starts,  but 
on  the  way  out  grab  the  fire  extinguisher  and  turn 
to  use  it.  Do  not  be  afraid  that  there  will  be  an 
explosion  and  run.  There  will  be  none,  and  if  you 
work  fast  you  may  save  serious  damage  to  the  car. 
Keep  your  head  and  fight. 

The  presumption  is  that  you  will  have  a  good 
extinguisher  on  the  car.  Two  would  be  better 
and  more  in  keeping  with  a  high-priced  car,  both 
placed  where  they  can  be  gotten  at  instantly,  for 
gasoline  fires  spread  mighty  fast.  The  causes 
of  fires  have  been  pretty  well  discussed  in  the 
preceding  chapter,  and  the  fact  that  care  will  pre- 
vent all  but  a  negligible  percentage  of  fires.  Back- 
fire, for  instance,  may  be  made  harmless  by  placing 
over  the  air  intake  a  screen  of  wire  gauze,  such  as 

220 


Don't  Run  Away  from  a  Fire        221 

is  used  in  a  miner's  safety  lamp.  To  prevent 
shutting  off  some  of  the  air  and  deranging  the 
carburetor,  the  screen  should  be  much  larger 
than  the  opening  of  the  intake.  It  can  be  made 
in  bulb  shape  and  clamped,  soldered,  or  wired  in 
position,  and  it  ought  not  to  require  more  than 
average  gumption  to  fit  such  a  device  on  any 
carburetor.  Make  sure  it  is  safety  gauze. 

There  are  several  forms  of  gaskets  advertised 
for  this  purpose,  but  all  so  far  noticed  were  to  go 
between  the  carburetor  and  intake  and  are  too 
likely  to  cause  condensation  of  the  gasoline  to 
be  recommended  for  use.  Particularly  in  cold 
weather  would  there  be  a  likelihood  of  condensa- 
tion of  vaporized  or  partly  vaporized  gasoline. 
But  with  the  wire-gauze  screen  above  described 
the  sting  of  back-fire  will  be  gone,  as  no  blaze 
could  pass  through  it  and  so  reach  the  gasoline 
fumes  which  might  be  in  the  drip  pan. 

One  cause  of  fire  not  often  mentioned  because  of 
its  rarity,  would  be  from  sparks  from  the  magneto 
or  generator  brushes,  or  from  the  breaker  points 
which  might  be  hot  enough  to  ignite  gasoline 
fumes  and  therefore  are  to  be  guarded  against. 

Since  gasoline  fumes  are  heavier  than  air  usually 
the  magneto  and  generator  are  set  high  enough 
to  be  above  the  danger  point;  and  where  the 


222     Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

magneto  is  between  the  cylinders  on  the  V-shaped 
installation,  there  would  be  no  danger.  On 
marine  engines,  however,  high  installation  is 
being  featured  lately  to  offset  this  very  danger. 

If,  after  all  precautions  are  taken,  you  are 
visited  by  fire,  stay  to  fight  it.  Get  only  far 
enough  away  to  escape  being  burned,  and  then 
fight  and  fight  hard.  Work  the  fire  extinguisher 
for  all  it  is  worth,  for  in  less  time  than  it  takes 
to  read  this  page  the  fate  of  your  car  will  have 
been  decided. 

Get  out  of  your  head,  first  of  all,  the  idea  that 
there  is  to  be  an  explosion.  It  doesn't  happen. 
The  first  puff  from  the  burning  gasoline  is  the 
nearest  thing  to  an  explosion  you  will  see.  After 
this  first  puff,  it  is  fire,  not  explosion,  you  need 
fear  and  fight.  Tanks  will  not  explode  unless 
empty  of  gasoline,  or  nearly  so,  and  filled  with 
gasoline  fumes — that  is,  vapor  and  air  mixed. 
Water  is  little  good  in  fighting  an  automobile 
fire  where  gasoline  and  oil  are  burning. 

There  are  several  things,  however,  which  will 
quench  the  flames,  and  which  should  be  at  hand. 
If  you  could  get  sand  and  salt  in  sufficient  quantity 
on  the  flames  it  would  be  effectual,  but  of  course 
one  could  hardly  carry  a  sufficient  quantity  along. 
There  are  also  tube  extinguishers  filled  with  a  dry 


Don't  Run  Away  from  a  Fire        223 

compound,  which  under  favorable  circumstances 
will  do  the  trick.  But  the  trouble  is  to  get  the 
compound  at  the  seat  of  the  fire,  and  to  throw  it 
violently  upon  the  flame  is  impossible. 

There  is  one  thing,  however,  which  will  actually 
put  out  a  gasoline  fire,  and  it  is  such  a  safeguard 
that  no  owner  can  afford  to  be  without  it.  That 
is  the  carbon  tetra-chloride  compound,  which  is 
the  basis  of  all  liquid  extinguishers  on  the  market. 
This,  discharged  close  to  the  seat  of  the  flames, 
forms  a  dense  smoke-like  gas  which  has  no  oxygen 
to  feed  the  fire,  which  therefore  goes  out  for  lack 
of  fuel.  There  are  many  good  extinguishers  on 
the  market  which  use  the  carbon  tetra-chloride 
mixture,  with  other  ingredients  to  keep  it  from 
corroding  the  pump,  or  to  add  some  other  quality 
to  the  compound.  These  extinguishers  cost  more 
than  the  dry  compound  tubes,  but  the  man  who 
can  afford  to  own  a  car  can  afford  to  have  the 
necessary  appliances  for  its  protection.  One  may 
never  have  occasion  to  use  the  fire  extinguishers, 
but  it  is  nice  to  know  that  they  are  ready  if  the 
emergency  does  come,  for  there  isn't  always  a  fire 
department  handy,  and  if  there  is,  generally  the 
firemen  arrive  after  the  car  is  doomed. 


CHAPTER  XXXIV 

DEATH  IN  THE  GASOLINE 

MOST  persons  understand  the  danger  of  getting 
gasoline  and  fire  in  close  proximity,  but  there  is 
another  peril  in  gasoline  which  is  not  so  well 
comprehended — indeed  has  only  come  to  the 
attention  of  scientists  in  recent  months.  It  is 
death,  called  petromortis,  or  gasoline  death, 
which  lurks  in  the  fumes  of  the  burned  gases 
from  the  exhaust  pipe. 

That  which  comes  from  the  exhaust  is  no  longer 
inflammable.  It  has  served  its  purpose  in  the 
combustion  chamber  by  burning  with  rapid  ex- 
pansion, furnishing  power.  It  has  undergone 
chemical  changes,  has  been  split  up,  the  hydro- 
carbon uniting  for  the  most  part  with  the  oxygen 
of  the  air  in  the  mixture  and  forming  carbon 
monoxide  and  carbon  dioxide.  The  latter  is 
carbonic  acid  gas,  in  which  no  living  thing  can 
live.  The  carbon  monoxide  is  no  less  deadly,  and 
besides  there  is  the  nitrogen  from  the  air,  which 
224 


Death  in  the  Gasoline  225 

will  suffocate  as  well,  unless  it  mingles  with  the 
air  freely. 

These  three  gases  exuding  from  the  exhaust 
pipe  into  a  confined  space,  such  as  a  small  garage, 
would  quickly  vitiate  the  atmosphere  to  a  point 
where,  close  to  the  floor,  asphyxiation  would 
result,  and  sooner  or  later  would  fill  the  garage 
up  to  the  point  of  the  air  intake.  Then,  as  oxygen- 
filled  air  could  not  enter  the  intake  to  form  mix- 
ture, the  engine  would  slow  down  and  stop. 

There  is  little  danger,  since  the  deadly  gases 
are  heavier  than  air,  when  one  is  working  about  the 
garage  in  a  standing  posture,  where  the  breathing 
apparatus  would  be  above  the  strata  of  gases 
and  taking  in  the  normal  air.  But  where  one  is 
working  at  the  tires,  or  any  part  of  the  car  below 
the  level  of  the  gases,  or  under  the  car,  he  might 
be  overcome  and  die  of  suffocation  in  a  few 
minutes. 

It  was  not  until  such  accidents  really  had 
occurred  that  the  attention  of  the  public  was 
directed  to  this  danger.  Just  recently  a  notable 
case  of  death  from  gasoline  fumes  was  that  of  a 
popular  actor.  He  was  working  in  his  garage,  and 
because  of  the  cold  had  the  doors  tightly  closed. 
Getting  under  the  car  to  adjust  and  oil  the  mechan- 
ism while  the  engine  was  running  to  warm  it  up, 
is 


226     Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

he  was  overcome  by  the  gases  which  could  not 
escape  from  the  garage,  and  died  before  being 
discovered. 

The  chemical  composition  of  the  exhaust  gases, 
according  to  an  expert,  is  as  follows: 

PER  CENT. 

Carbonic  acid  gas  8.70 

Oxygen  2.75 

Carbon  monoxide  .30 

Hydrocarbons  6.55 

Nitrogen  81.70 


100.00 

There  is  much  disagreement  as  to  the  quantity 
of  carbon  monoxide  necessary  to  be  fatal.  A 
well-known  automobile  trade  journal  recently  said 
that  25  per  cent,  would  produce  death  in  half  an 
hour  and  15  per  cent,  would  produce  a  violent 
headache  in  several  hours.  Other  authorities 
•claim  that  as  little  as  .5  per  cent,  would  be  fatal. 
It  is  more  probable  that  the  large  amount  of 
suffocating  gases,  nitrogen  and  carbonic  acid  gas, 
produces  unconsciousness,  and  then  the  carbon 
monoxide,  attacking  the  blood  particles,  affects 
them  so  that  they  are  unable  to  take  in  oxygen ; 
hence  death  is  certain. 

There  are  several  ways  in  which  the  danger 
may  be  obviated.  The  first  and  most  natural  one 


Death  in  the  Gasoline  227 

is  to  open  the  garage  doors  when  the  engine  is 
being  run,  or  have  an  opening  on  the  level  with  the 
floor  through  which  the  heavy  fumes  may  escape — 
roll  out  of  the  garage. 

Another  way  is  to  provide  a  pipe,  with  flexible 
hose  to  attach  it  to  the  exhaust  pipe  and  leading 
to  the  outer  air,  so  that  the  exhaust  would  virtu- 
ally be  out-of-doors.  .  This  would  not  be  expensive 
nor  difficult  for  any  ingenious  man  to  arrange. 
The  pipe  should  be  larger  than  the  exhaust  nozzle 
and  flexible  metal  hose  of  convenient  length 
should  be  attached  by  the  use  of  a  reducer,  the 
other  end  to  be  forced  over  the  end  of  the  exhaust, 
to  which  a  short  length  of  pipe  might  be  added  if 
necessary.  Three  or  four  inches  would  be  long 
enough  for  the  hose  to  attach  easily.  If  necessary 
a  clamp  with  wing  nut  on  the  bolt  could  be  used 
to  hold  it  in  place. 

Gasoline  fumes  which  are  not  burned  also  have 
a  peculiar  effect  when  one  inhales  them  profusely. 
Years  ago  when  on  a  visit  to  Oil  City,  Pa.,  the 
writer  was  invited  to  inspect  the  old  Imperial  Re- 
finery, one  of  the  plants  which  helped  found  the 
Rockefeller  millions.  One  phase  of  refining  kero- 
sene is  to  wash  out  the  volatile  elements  which 
make  it  dangerous.  This  is  done  in  an  agitator, 
where  streams  of  water  literally  wash  the  kero- 


228     Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

sene,  keeping  it  eddying  and  boiling  as  though  a 
fire  were  under  it.  The  top  is  open  and  around 
it  runs  a  gallery  from  which  the  process  is  watched. 
It  was  a  favorite  trick  of  the  employes  to  conduct  a 
stranger  to  this  gallery  and  steer  him  to  the  lee 
side  where  he  gets  the  full  effect  of  the  fumes 
which  pass  off.  Most  men  not  used  to  it  began 
to  feel  light-headed  in  a  few  minutes  and  to 
act  as  though  they  had  been  imbibing  strong 
waters.  It  is  an  exact  simile  of  the  alcoholic  con- 
dition, though  without  the  after  effects  the  next 
day.  To  a  limited  degree  one  may  acquire  the 
same  effects  from  gasoline  in  the  garage  if  there 
are  large  open  gasoline  receptacles  to  send  off 
fumes  sufficient  to  affect  one.  Of  course,  if  there 
were  enough  to  do  this,  a  spark  from  any  source 
would  start  a  fire. 


CHAPTER  XXXV 

SHIFTING    GEARS    ON    HILLS 

ONE  of  the  most  humiliating  experiences  which 
can  come  to  an  owner  is  to  have  to  ask  his  guests, 
even  if  it  be  only  friend  wife,  to  get  out  and  walk 
when  a  long  and  steep  hill  is  partly  ascended. 
While  there  are  conditions  of  engine  which  would 
make  hill  climbing  hard,  if  not  impossible,  they 
are  due  to  neglect  or  poor  adjustment,  so  that  the 
engine  has  not  power  enough  to  negotiate  stiff 
grades.  The  owner  who  keeps  the  motor  in  proper 
condition,  in  practically  any  make  of  car  on  the 
market  today,  should  have  no .  trouble  in  making 
the  worst  hills.  Yet  how  often  we  find  cars  stalled 
on  mountain  roads  and  even  on  steep  city  streets, 
and  see  owner  and  guests  walking  or  pushing 
the  car. 

Recently  the  writer,  going  from  Greenwood  Lake 

to  Tuxedo,  in  Orange  County,  New  York,  in  a 

well-known  make  of  touring  car,  passed  six  cars  of 

different  kinds  stalled  at  the  very  start  of  the 

229 


230     Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

climb  over  Sterling  Mountain.  The  first  one 
met  was  a  Ford.  Now  there  is  no  reason  whatever 
for  stalling  a  car  of  this  make  on  any  hill.  It  is 
a  matter  of  comment  that  the  Ford — much  de- 
spised by  the  owner  of  the  big  car — will  take  hills 
that  some  multi-cylindered  and  high-powered 
cars  make  much  fuss  over,  and  do  it  handily. 
The  trouble  was  that  the  driver  started  at  high 
speed  and  then  did  not  know  how  to  shift  the  gears 
properly  and  the  car  stalled. 

When  we  reached  it  the  Ford  was  stalled  across 
the  roadway  and  we  had  to  stop  until  the  driver 
started  the  engine  and  backed  the  car  to  one  side. 
Not  being  familiar  with  the  hill-climbing  abilities 
of  the  car  in  which  he  was  seated,  the  writer 
inquired  of  our  driver  if  it  were  not  better  to  walk 
awhile. 

"No  one  will  ever  walk  while  I  am  driving," 
was  the  reply,  "unless  something  breaks.  I  do  not 
go  out  riding  to  walk ;  besides  the  car  will  carry 
us  all  right." 

And  it  did.  Although  we  had  stopped  at  the 
very  foot  of  a  steep  grade  fifty  feet  long,  the  car 
on  low  gear  took  it  without  a  stutter,  and  then 
coming  to  a  lesser  grade,  a  shift  was  made  to 
second  gear.  We  did  not  use  first  speed  more  than 
once  or  twice,  and  then  only  to  keep  from  stalling 


Shifting  Gears  on  Hills  231 

on  the  grade  when  it  was  necessary  to  slow  down 
in  passing  other  cars  at  narrow  points  in  the  road. 
Occasionally  high  speed  was  possible  for  short 
stretches.  When  well  over  the  top  of  the  moun- 
tain we  stopped  to  let  the  engine  cool  off  for 
probably  ten  minutes  and  then  coasted  nearly  all 
the  way  down  the  mountain  side. 

There  was  no  need  of  any  of  the  cars  stalling  on 
this  grade,  though  it  is  long  and  has  many  very 
steep  places;  there  was  no  sign  that  any  of  the 
cars  was  deficient  in  power.  The  deficiency  was  in 
knowledge  on  the  part  of  the  drivers. 

Where1  the  driver  understands  gear  shifting  well 
enough  to  do  it  on  a  grade,  the  proper  way  to 
approach  a  hill  is  on  high,  with  the  accelerator 
opened  enough,  and  spark  advanced,  to  speed 
up  the  car.  Then  when  the  car  begins  to  lose 
speed  and  before  it  has  slowed  down  too  much, 
the  shift  should  be  made  to  second-speed  gear, 
which  should  carry  the  car  up  any  ordinary  hill. 
If  an  extra  steep  gradient  be  encountered,  first 
speed  may  be  necessary  for  that  stretch. 

It  is  well  just  as  the  foot  of  a  hill  is  reached  to 
open  the  throttle  wide.  If  the  engine  begins  to 
knock  or  otherwise  labor,  retard  the  spark  enough 
to  overcome*  this.  In  the  chapter  on  "Driving 
the  Car,"  detailed  instructions  for  the  operation 


232     Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

of  the  gears  in  hill  climbing  and  descending  are 
given.  Study  these  rules  closely  and  try  out  your 
car  on  short  grades  before  attempting  long  and 
steep  hills.  Make  sure  that  you  know  how  to 
operate  the  levers  for  gear  shifting  and  then 
take  things  easy.  Do  not  be  in  a  hurry.  Haste 
makes  waste. 

While  many  high-powered  cars,  and  sometimes 
those  of  less  pretentious  build,  will  take  almost 
any  hill  on  high  gear,  it  is  not  always  policy  to  do 
this.  Some  modern  motors  are  designed  with  a 
view  to  make  the  climbing  of  hills  easy,  but  even 
so,  the  climb  made  on  second-speed  gear  will 
take  but  a  trifle  longer  and  the  car  will  not  be 
submitted  to  the  tremendous  strain  of  operation 
on  high  speed.  It  is  all  very  well  to  boast  that 
one's  car  will  "take  the  worst  hill  on  high,"  but 
a  better  boast  would  be  that  the  car  has  stood  up 
for  two  or  three  years  longer  than  ordinary,  and 
care  in  the  operation  will  produce  that  result. 

The  driver  whose  engine  is  not  in  the  best  of 
condition  and  which  is  not  delivering  its  full 
power,  and  especially  if  he  is  not  fully  versed  in 
shifting  the  gears,  would  better  not  try  to  take  a 
hill  of  any  length  or  of  any  considerable  grade  on 
high.  Indeed  it  is  wise  to  shift  into  second  gear 
before  starting  up  the  grade,  for  nothing  is  more 


Shifting  Gears  on  Hills  233 

unpleasant  than  stalling  the  engine  half  way  up. 
And  he  ought  not  to  despise  low  speed  if  necessary 
to  negotiate  the  hill  without  straining  the  engine 
unduly.  Motoring  is  not  just  piling  up  mileage 
records  or  speeding  across  the  country  as  though  the 
devil  were  at  one's  heels.  There  are  a  few  things 
more  desirable  than  miles  per  hour,  even  though  the 
American ' '  Get  There ' '  spirit  be  abroad .  Generally 
speaking  there  is  a  direct  relation  between  cost 
per  mile  and  miles  per  hour,  and  while  some 
owners  may  be  able  to  afford  twenty  cents  and 
upwards  per  mile,  the  average  owner  does  not  care 
to  indulge  regularly  in  such  a  cost  figure. 

When  it  comes  to  descending  steep  hills,  the 
cost  does  not  figure  so  much  as  safety.  How  often 
one  sees  cars  tearing  down  a  hill  with  the  engine 
running,  gear  in  high  speed,  and  devil-may-care  at 
the  wheel.  If  the  drivers  realized  the  slight  things 
upon  which  their  fate  hangs  at  such  a  time  there 
would  be  more  care.  Ninety  per  cent,  of  all  the 
accidents  to  automobiles  are  the  result  of  sheer 
carelessness  of  the  drivers;  nine  per  cent,  are  from 
the  carelessness  of  some  other  driver;  only  about 
one  per  cent,  can  be  set  down  to  breaks  of  parts, 
blow-outs,  or  other  things  not  to  be  prevented  by 
ordinary  precautions. 

On  a  slight  and  straight  hill  it  is  all  right  to  go 


234     Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

down  on  high  speed,  simply  shutting  off  the  igni- 
tion so  that  the  engine  will  act  as  a  brake,  the  foot 
brake  being  used  if  necessary ;  but  on  a  steep  hill 
it  is  far  wiser  to  shift  into  second-speed  or  even 
first-speed  gear  before  attempting  to  descend. 
The  engine  will  exert  a  powerful  braking  force  in 
low-speed  gear.  Besides,  the  running  and  emer- 
gency brakes  are  to  be  used  alternately,  so  that 
on  a  long  hill  the  brake  linings  will  not  be  burned 
up.  Of  course  the  clutch  must  be  left  engaged  to 
secure  the  braking  effect  of  the  engine. 

It  is  a  mighty  bad  thing  to  start  down  a  hill  in 
high  gear  and  then,  half  way  down,  find  that 
brakes  will  not  hold,  or  that  something  has  gone 
wrong  suddenly.  Long  and  steep  hills  rarely 
are  wide  or  smooth;  there  are  ditches  and  humps 
and  rocks,  sometimes,  and  narrow  places  where 
there  is  scarce  room  for  two  cars  to  pass,  and  less 
than  perfect  control  of  the  car  is  perilous.  ' '  Better 
be  safe  than  sorry"  is  a  homely  old  saw,  but  it  is 
pertinent. 

Another  thing  is  that  the  hill  speedster  is  one  of 
the  greatest  menaces  to  other  drivers  so  far  found. 
If  one  cares  not  for  his  own  car  or  neck,  at  least  he 
should  have  a  care  for  the  others  on  the  hill;  and 
whether  it  is  on  the  ascent  or  descent  the  speedster 
endangers  every  one  else  going  in  either  direction 


Shifting  Gears  on  Hills  235 

at  the  same  time,  except  perhaps  the  fellow  who  is 
following  him  at  a  safe  pace.  It  is  no  comfort  to 
know  that  the  mortality  is  highest  among  the 
speed  fiends  of  motordom;  occasionally  they  raise 
the  mortality  figure  of  the  drivers  who  practice 
safety  first. 


CHAPTER  XXXVI 

KEEPING  THE   CAR   SLEEK 

OF  course,  if  one  does  not  care  for  appearances, 
and  has  no  pride  in  the  bright  and  shiny  varnish 
of  the  body  and  in  the  absence  of  rustiness  of 
the  top,  and  thinks  because  the  engine  is  under 
the  hood  no  one  will  see  that  it  has  been  neg- 
lected, this  section  will  not  particularly  interest 
the  reader.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  if  these 
things  count,  and  the  owner  understands  that 
true  economy  consists  in  keeping  not  only  the 
running  parts  in  condition,  but  everything  else  at 
the  top  notch  of  perfection,  then  he  will  heed 
the  advice  herein. 

Just  because  it  does  not  show  to  the  passer-by, 
many  think  that  the  appearance  of  the  engine 
does  not  count;  that  it  is  not  essential  that  it  be 
kept  free  of  oil,  grease,  dust,  and  corrosion  of  iron 
and  brass.  Get  this  idea  out  of  the  head  instan- 
ter.  It  is  false  and  has  much  to  do  with  break- 
down and  wear-out  of  the  motor.  The  cleaner  it  is 
236 


Keeping  the  Car  Sleek  237 

kept  the  longer  will  it  run  satisfactorily,  both  as 
to  troubles  and  to  length  of  life.  One  may  well 
err  on  the  side  of  cleanliness  rather  than  be  some- 
what slovenly.  The  motor  ought  to  be  cleaned 
off  on  the  outside  after  any  lengthy  trip,  or  after 
any  run  when  roads  are  dusty,  or  oily,  or  sandy. 

One  may  be  as  particular  as  possible,  yet  there 
will  be  some  oil  or  grease  on  the  motor  exterior. 
Probably  that  which  lodges  upon  the  cylinders 
will,  if  there  is  much  hill  climbing  to  heat  the 
motor  unduly,  make  itself  visible  and  smellable — 
visible  in  a  thin  streak  of  smoke  coming  from  the 
hood,  and  smellable  to  the  point  of  offensiveness 
when  that  streak  of  smoke  strikes  the  olfactory 
nerves.  But  in  most  instances  it  will  remain 
upon  the  engine,  gradually  becoming  a  gum  from 
the  drying  up  of  the  substance  and  the  accretion 
of  dust  from  the  road.  The  longer  it  remains 
the  harder  it  is  to  remove  it;  hence  when  the 
work  is  done  in  the  garage  every  time  the  car 
comes  in,  it  will  take  but  a  few  minutes  and  slight 
labor;  while  if  allowed  to  accumulate,  it  may  mean 
hours'  work  to  get  rid  of  the  hard  deposit. 

Sufficient  instruction  has  been  given  as  to  the 
care  of  the  working  parts  of  the  motor,  so  that 
only  the  exterior  need  be  considered  at  this  time. 
Begin  at  the  top.  First  of  all  see  that  the  wire 


238     Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

terminals  at  the  spark  plugs  are  free  from  corrosion 
and  grease.  They  should  be  dry  and  clean  if  they 
are  to  transmit  the  current  to  the  plugs.  Usually 
the  wires  are  carried  in  a  tube  to  protect  them 
from  heat  and  grease,  but  not  always.  In  any 
event,  trace  along  the  wires  to  see  that  oil  or  grease 
is  not  present  upon  them.  Either  will  rot  the 
rubber  insulation  and  cause  a  leak  which  will 
affect  the  ignition.  Examine  all  the  terminals 
under  the  hood  for  the  same  purpose,  and  every 
once  in  a  while  disconnect  the  wires  one  by  one 
and  scrape  the  terminals  bright,  also  the  contact 
point  where  terminal  is  fastened.  Replace  the 
wires  one  by  one  as  you  clean  them  so  they  will 
not  become  disarranged.  See  also  that  there  is 
no  oil,  grease,  or  dirt  on  the  spark  plugs,  for  it 
might  form  a  sufficient  path  for  current  to  practi- 
cally short-circuit  the  plug. 

Wipe  off  the  top  of  the  cylinders  and  blow  out 
accumulations  of  dust  from  any  recesses  where  it 
has  collected.  If  there  is  thickened  or  gummy 
oil  upon  the  metal,  which  will  not  wipe  off  readily, 
saturate  the  waste  or  cloth  in  gasoline  at  the 
carburetor  drip  cock,  and  it  will  loosen  up  quickly. 
Gasoline  is  more  convenient,  but  kerosene  will 
do  the  work  better,  leaving  a  surface  less  likely 
to  rust.  In  the  same  way  clean  the  exterior  of  all 


Keeping  the  Car  Sleek  239 

the  parts  of  the  motor  and  everything  attached 
to  it.  Where  the  brass  shows  corrosion,  use  a 
cleaning  compound  to  remove  it.  Brass  may  be 
kept  from  corroding  in  wet  weather  by  coating 
it  with  whiting.  Several  good  compounds  also 
are  sold  for  this  purpose.  Bright  iron  parts 
may  be  kept  from  rusting  by  wiping  them  with 
a  rag  dampened  with  a  thin  oil,  which  should  be 
wiped  off  regularly,  and  there  never  should  be 
enough  to  show. 

The  fan,  fan  belt,  pulleys,  gear  casings,  and 
other  parts  at  the  front  end  collect  much  dust  and 
should  be  kept  clean.  The  air  holes  through  the 
radiator,  also,  must  be  kept  free  of  dust,  oil,  and 
asphalt  from  oiled  roads.  In  fact  every  part 
under  the  hood  needs  frequent  cleaning. 

There  are  some  parts  of  the  chassis  and  under- 
gear  which  will  not  be  readily  reached  by  the  hose 
and  water  when  cleaning  the  body;  therefore 
they  should  first  be  rubbed  off  and  cleaned  of  dirt, 
grease,  and  accumulations  of  asphalt  from  oiled 
roads,  or  mud.  Do  this  while  the  space  under  the 
car  is  dry,  and  if  it  is  done  regularly  it  will  not  be 
difficult  to  keep  this  part  of  the  car  in  order. 
The  parts  of  the  various  rods  and  rocker  shafts, 
and  particularly  near  the  bearings,  should  be  kept 
clean. 


240     Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

If  one  will  make  a  "creeper"  from  which  to 
work  when  getting  under  the  car,  it  will  remove 
most  of  the  objections  which  drivers  have  to 
"getting  under."  Take  a  board  of  twelve  inches 
wide  and  five  feet  long  and  mount  casters  which 
move  freely  under  it.  At  one  end  place  an  in- 
clined head  or  shoulder  rest  a  foot  long  and  with 
four  or  five  inches'  rise.  Then  cover  the  upper 
side  with  carpet,  padded  to  make  it  comfortable. 
Lying  down  upon  this,  one  may  move  about 
under  the  car  in  ease  and  get  at  all  the  mechanism 
readily.  It  is  not  only  good  for  cleaning  time, 
but  when  inspecting  or  oiling,  or  tightening  up 
the  bolts  and  nuts  and  bearings  which  may  be 
reached  only  from  beneath  the  car.  It  also  keeps 
one  off  a  wet  floor  or  ground. 

Next  take  a  hose,  if  one  be  available,  and  play 
it.  freely  all  over  the  body  and  running  gear, 
fenders,  mud  guards,  wheels,  with  care,  of  course, 
that  the  upholstery  be  not  sprinkled  too  much. 
Do  a  thorough  job  with  the  hose  but  do  not  use  a 
powerful  stream  upon  the  highly  polished  surfaces. 
It  will  not  only  take  off  dust  but  loosen  up  mud, 
and  the  force  of  the  spray  will  take  off  fresh 
accumulations  of  asphalt  from  mud  guards  and 
chassis.  Then  with  the  hose  playing  ahead,  use  a 
soft  sponge  to  go  over  all  the  parts  to  remove  any 


Keeping  the  Car  Sleek  241 

remaining  dirt  and  rinse  down  with  water  alone. 
Next,  with  cloth  and  chamois  dry  the  woodwork 
and  other  painted  surfaces  until  they  shine. 

Where  mud  and  asphalt  are  dried  and  refractory, 
other  means  must  be  taken  to  remove  them 
before  rinsing  and  drying.  Mud  may  be  softened 
by  holding  a  saturated  sponge  over  it  for  a  few 
moments.  If  the  mud  be  mixed  with  oil  or  grease 
so  that  water  does  not  soften  it,  kerosene  will,  and 
it  does  not  take  much  of  it.  Kerosene  also  will 
soften  the  asphalt  which  clings  to  the  car.  Grease 
and  oil  also  yield  to  kerosene,  which  should  be 
wiped  off  and  the  painted  parts  polished  with  a 
cloth  dampened  with  linseed  oil.  Naturally  this 
should  be  wiped  off  completely  so  that  it  would 
not  become  a  dust  catcher. 

Do  not  use  soap  on  the  highly  polished  sur- 
faces of  the  body.  Most  soaps  have  free  alkali — 
lye — in  their  composition,  and  while  this  makes 
them  cut  dirt  and  grease  fast,  it  injures  the  var- 
nished surface,  in  a  short  time  wearing  off  the 
gloss.  Washing  is  the  better  done  when  the 
hose  only  is  used.  In  the  country,  where  a  hose 
is  not  available,  the  washing  will  be  slower,  since 
the  water  in  a  pail  must  be  renewed  frequently 
and  the  sponge  rinsed  practically  every  stroke 
to  rid  it  of  grit.  Where  it  is  possible  to  run  a 


242     Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

line  from  tank  to  the  garage,  or,  if  there  is  no  tank, 
from  an  elevated  barrel,  which  can  be  filled  with 
a  force  pump,  it  should  be  done. 

There  are  various  preparations  sold  for  re- 
newing the  surface  of  auto  bodies  after  it  begins 
to  dull.  Good  gloss  should  last  a  year  with 
care,  especially  if  it  be  wiped  over  occasionally 
with  a  soft  cloth  dampened  with  a  mixture  of 
linseed  oil  and  a  little  high-grade  carriage  varnish 
— a  half  pint  to  the  gallon  of  oil.  As  there  is  a 
wide  variation  in  both  ingredients,  if  the  mixture 
seems  sticky  when  rubbed  between  the  fingers  or 
when  applied  to  the  car  surface,  add  considerably 
more  oil,  as  it  is  not  intended  as  a  new  covering 
for  the  paint,  but  to  freshen  up  the  varnish. 

Mohair  tops  need  to  be  dusted  with  a  moist 
sponge,  using  also  soapsuds  if  spotted  with  oil  or 
grease.  Leather  and  its  imitations  may  be  kept 
in  good  condition  if  oiled  occasionally  or  treated 
with  one  of  the  good  preparations  sold.  The  top 
should  be  dried  before  folding  down.  After 
driving  through  a  shower  let  the  top  stay  up  until 
sun  and  wind  have  dried  it  thoroughly.  Care  in 
folding  will  lengthen  the  life  of  the  top.  Freedom 
from  cracks  and  creases  will  mean  a  dry  top,  to 
insure  which  is  worth  any  amount  of  trouble. 

Keeping  the  car  covered  when  in  the  garage 


Keeping  the  Car  Sleek  243 

pays,  for  dust  will  blow  in  and  settle  over  all 
parts.  The  upholstery  also  may  be  protected  by 
slip  covers,  which  should  be  kept  on  during  dusty 
trips,  and  be  washed  when  dirty.  Leather  cush- 
ions should  be  freshened  the  same  as  the  top. 

The  man  who  has  cared  for  a  fine  carriage  will 
know  what  to  do  with  similar  parts  of  the  auto- 
mobile; others  should  .learn  how  to  care  for  them, 
and  understand  that  varnished  and  polished  sur- 
faces will  become  dulled  if  the  car  is  stored  in  a 
stable,  or  adjacent  to  stable  or  barnyard.  If  a 
barn  is  converted  into  a  garage,  it  should  be 
thoroughly  renovated  and  fitted  with  a  cement 
floor  sloping  to  the  center,  with  a  drain  leading 
outside,  so  that  the  car  may  be  washed  there 
and  the  water  run  off  through  the  drain. 

In  fact  the  owner  of  a  car  may  find  something 
to  do  all  the  time  for  convenience  and  comfort. 
If  he  arranges  things  conveniently  he  will  not 
only  save  time  but  will  be  able  to  do  better  work, 
and  will  have  the  satisfaction  of  knowing  that  he  is 
keeping  down  expense  and  getting  the  most  out 
of  his  machine  for  the  expenditure. 


CHAPTER  XXXVII 

SOME  THINGS  A  TOURIST   SHOULD  KNOW 

THESE  are  the  days  of  the  tour  and  to  thousands 
more  each  year  it  means  a  trip  by  automobile 
to  lake  or  mountain,  or  the  more  pretentious 
visit  to  the  old  home,  or  to  some  new,  and  to  the 
tourist,  undiscovered,  country.  The  tourist  who 
goes  by  auto  fully  prepared  for  the  emergencies 
which  may  arise,  unhampered  by  railway  schedule, 
and  who  will  take  time  to  enjoy  himself,  will  get 
untold  pleasure  out  of  the  trip. 

The  speedster  knows  nothing  of  the  pleasure  of 
touring,  and  the  fellow  who  is  always  worrying 
lest  he  shall  not  make  Squedunk  Corners  in  time 
to  eat  and  get  to  Possum  Crossing  for  the  night 
will  be  watching  the  road  map  and  the  clock  on 
the  dash  so  closely  that  the  beauties  nature  has 
lavishly  scattered  about  will  be  lost  upon  him,  and 
his  memory  of  the  trip  will  be  a  procession  of 
eating  and  sleeping  houses,  with  trouble  between 

them  all. 

244 


Some  Things  a  Tourist  Should  Know  245 

The  man  who  is  starting  out  for  the  tour  with 
a  new  car,  which  has  been  tried  out  enough  to  be 
sure  that  it  is  in  condition,  need  only  know  that 
he  has  with  him  the  things  most  likely  to  be 
needed  for  an  emergency,  but  if  the  car  has  been 
in  service  for  several  months  or  more,  he  ought 
to  give  it  a  "once  over"  at  least  before  starting. 

One  of  the  things  to  attend  to  is  refilling  the 
gear  cases.  Both  the  transmission  and  differential 
cases  should  be  drained  of  all  oil  and  washed  out 
carefully  with  kerosene.  At  the  same  time  the 
gears  should  be  examined  closely  to  see  if  they  are 
in  good  shape.  One  may  find  one  or  two  teeth 
chipped,  though  not  broken  enough  to  make  the 
condition  known  by  sound.  It  probably  was  too 
hard  originally  and  the  break  is  not  the  fault  of 
the  driver,  but  it  should  be  replaced,  for  it  is 
likely  to  give  trouble  at  any  time.  When  cleaned, 
the  cases  should  be  refilled  with  the  proper  amount 
of  new  lubricant,  but  not  too  much,  because  then  it 
will  work  out  and  scatter  over  the  car  and  prob- 
ably get  on  the  brake  drums  and  make  them  slip. 

The  crank  case  of  the  engine  should  be  drained 
and  cleaned  out  with  kerosene  and  fresh  oil  be  put 
in.  If  the  oiling  system  is  working  properly,  it  is 
best  to  let  it  alone  and  see  that  it  is  kept  filled  with 
the  proper  quality  of  lubricant  while  on  the  road. 


246     Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

Of  course  the  grease  cups  should  be  filled  and  all 
points  which  are  lubricated  by  oil  from  a  squirt 
can  should  be  taken  care  of.  The  wheel  bearings 
all  should  be  examined  to  determine  their  condi- 
tion and  to  see  that  they  are  properly  lubricated. 
If  very  dirty  they  should  be  cleaned  and  fresh 
grease  be  applied. 

It  is  well  to  carry  an  extra  gallon  of  engine  oil 
in  the  car,  also  a  small  can  of  grease.  Garages 
are  plenty,  but  sometimes  an  accident  occurs 
which  causes  a  loss  of  the  main  supply  of  oil  and 
makes  it  impossible  to  drive  even  a  mile  without 
an  extra  supply.  Likewise  if  the  gasoline  tank 
is  not  provided  with  an  emergency  tank  or  cham- 
ber, an  extra  gallon  of  gasoline  should  be  carried. 
Convenient  emergency  tanks  for  this  purpose  may 
be  purchased  at  any  accessory  store. 

Both  sets  of  brakes  should  be  carefully  examined 
to  see  that  the  lining  is  not  worn  too  thin  and  that 
the  different  pins  and  clevises  of  the  brake  linkage 
are  not  worn  so  as  to  be  weak  and  likely  to  give 
away  in  touring  under  extraordinary  pressure. 
Often  in  touring  one  com.es  upon  unexpected 
grades,  some  of  them  miles  long,  and  the  tourist 
should  be  prepared  for  prolonged  and  extra- 
ordinary service. 

Where  prolonged  service  is  required  it  should  be 


Some  Things  a  Tourist  Should  Know  247 

possible  to  use  the  two  sets  of  brakes  alternately. 
In  this  connection  it  is  well  to  keep  in  mind  that 
on  long  grades  considerable  braking  may  be  done 
by  cutting  off  the  ignition  and  allowing  the  car  to 
turn  the  engine  over  in  high  or  intermediate  gear. 
Keeping  the  car  down  to  a  rather  low  speed  in  this 
manner  will  also  be  found  to  save  burning  up  the 
brake  linings. 

It  is  of  the  utmost  necessity  to  keep  the  brake 
drums  free  from  oil.  When  the  car  is  driven  out 
into  the  country  the  crown  of  the  road  tilts  the 
car  over,  so  that  if  there  is  too  much  oil  in  the 
differential  case  it  will  work  through  the  axle 
housing  to  the  brake  drum  on  the  right  side. 
Of  course  this  is  taken  care  of  largely  as  previously 
advised,  by  winding  felt  around  the  axle,  or  by 
not  having  too  much  lubricant  in  the  differential, 
although  enough  is  very  necessary. 

If  the  engine  shows  any  tendency  to  knock  on 
the  hill  it  would  be  well  to  have  the  carbon  re- 
moved before  starting.  It  is  very  disagreeable 
to  have  to  take  a  hill  on  second  speed  that  could  be 
taken  on  high  if  the  throttle  could  be  kept  open 
without  causing  knocking.  Trips  may  be  practi- 
cally spoiled  by  the  fact  that  the  engine  is  full  of 
carbon  and  does  not  have  sufficient  power  to 
negotiate  the  hills. 


248     Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

Of  course  the  car  should  be  gone  over  system- 
atically to  see  that  all  nuts  are  tight  and  pro- 
perly supplied  with  cotter  pins  or  lock  washers. 
All  parts  should  be  scrutinized  carefully  to  see 
that  there  are  no  cracked  or  badly  worn  parts 
likely  to  give  out  under  the  severe  strain  of  touring. 

The  compression  of  the  engine  should  be  tested 
and  if  found  weak  in  any  cylinder  the  valves 
should  be  ground  in.  Spark  plugs  should  be  made 
perfectly  clean,  magneto  interrupter  points  cleaned 
and  adjusted  to  gauge  and  high-tension  distributor 
cleaned  out,  and  the  battery  should  be  tested 
to  make  sure  it  is  in  normal  condition.  If  almost 
discharged,  a  charge  should  be  given  it  from  some 
external  source.  The  commutators  of  the  genera- 
tor and  starting  motor  should  be  examined  and 
if  badly  scored  they  will  need  to  be  trued  up.  If 
the  storage  battery  is  depended  upon  entirely 
for  ignition,  a  set  of  dry  cells  should  be  carried  so 
that  in  case  of  entire  failure  of  the  storage  battery, 
ignition  and  lights  may  be  had  for  a  short  time, 
even  though  the  engine  has  to  be  cranked  by 
hand. 

Some  annoyance  may  be  saved  by  examining 
the  springs  to  see  if  there  is  a  cracked  leaf  to  be 
replaced.  Spring  repair  attachments  are  sold,  but 
it  depends  upon  the  ingenuity  of  the  individual 


Some  Things  a  Tourist  Should  Know  249 

whether  repairs  of  this  sort  can  be  made  upon  the 
road. 

In  addition  to  tools  and  the  other  things  pre- 
viously recommended  to  be  carried,  the  tourist 
should  take  at  least  one  set  of  electric  bulbs  for  the 
car.  Spark  plugs  may  be  cleaned  with  very  little 
trouble,  but  it  is  handier  to  carry  two  or  three 
extra  ones  for  quick  exchange,  cleaning  the  ones 
removed  at  the  end  of  the  day,  or  at  the  noon 
stop.  One  or  two  extra  tires  carried  inflated  and 
on  the  rims  are  usual,  and  it  is  wise  to  have  two 
or  three  extra  inner  tubes.  If  one  does  have  tire 
trouble  it  seems  to  come  in  bunches  and  it  is 
just  as  well  to  be  prepared  for  the  worst.  The 
tourist  who  is  traveling  very  far  from  garages 
should  carry  also  patches  and  cement. 

Of  course  each  car  will  carry  a  real  fire  extin- 
guisher and  a  tow  rope.  If  you  do  not  need  to  be 
towed  out  of  a  mud  hole  yourself  someone  else  will. 
Be  prepared.  Most  drivers  like  to  have  along  a 
spool  of  annealed  wire,  a  pair  of  side-cutting  pliers, 
and  a  roll  of  tire  tape.  It  is  really  wonderful 
what  an  ingenious  man  can  do  with  these  things. 
The  tools  to  be  carried  should  be  sufficient  to  do 
ordinary  road  repairs  and  the  outfit  suggested 
in  a  previous  chapter  is  recommended. 

As  previously  stated,  it  is  not  the  man  who 


250     Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

rushes  around  and  plans  maximum  distances  for 
each  day's  run  who  gets  the  most  out  of  the  tour ; 
he  makes  work  out  of  pleasure  keeping  up  with  a 
schedule.  It  is  better  to  allow  more  time  for  the 
runs,  and  then  if  one  gets  ahead  of  schedule  to 
lay  off  a  half  day  and  see  the  sights  and  keep  the 
car  in  condition. 


CHAPTER  XXXVIII 

LITTLE   KNOCKS  ARE  HARDLY   BOOSTS 

ONE  of  the  worst  things  with  which  the  autoist 
has  to  contend  mechanically  is  the  accumulation 
of  carbon  in  the  cylinders,  clogging  the  piston  rings, 
filling  and  short-circuiting  the  spark  plugs  and 
causing  a  knock  which  is  not  only  annoying,  but 
productive  of  trouble  sooner  or  later.  There  are 
various  reasons  for  the  accumulation  of  carbon, 
such  as  poor  gas,  defective  ignition,  insufficient 
pressure,  but  few  have  assigned  as  a  cause  of 
carbon  trouble  and  knocking  a  too  high  cylinder 
compression. 

Too  high  compression  occasions  much  of  the 
knock  ordinarily  assigned  to  other  causes.  En- 
gines are  designed  with  a  certain  size  combustion 
chamber,  and  with  a  chamber  of  that  size  to  get 
a  certain  compression  in  pounds  per  square  inch. 
The  nearer  we  get  to  the  point  of  pre-ignition 
without  actually  reaching  pre-ignition,  the  more 
251 


252     Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

efficiently  will  the  engine  operate.  Pre-ignition, 
of  course,  would  make  a  knock. 

A  good  many  manufacturers  make  the  compres- 
sion figure  just  as  high  as  they  dare,  with  the  result 
that,  when  the  carbon  forms,  the  size  of  the  com- 
bustion chamber  is  reduced  and  the  pressure  is 
raised  to  such  a  degree  that  it  will  cause  pre-ignition 
and  its  resultant  knock.  When  a  manufacturer 
tells  the  buyer  that  his  engine  is  proof  against 
carbon  and  the  knocking  occasioned  thereby,  he 
probably  is  trying  to  offset  more  serious  "knocks" 
the  car  is  receiving  from  disgruntled  users. 

This  is  an  instance  which  illustrates  the  point : 

A  friend  of  mine  has  a  four-cylinder  engine  in 
one  of  the  later  models  of  a  well-known  car  of 
high  speed  and  power.  On  several  occasions  we 
have  been  driving  in  and  near  the  city  and, 
after  about  125  miles,  we  seemed  always  to  have 
trouble  with  knocking  in  climbing  hills.  On  one 
trip  my  friend  had  the  carbon  burned  out 
carefully  before  starting.  About  the  time  we 
reached  the  end  of  the  trip  the  engine  began  to 
knock  on  the  hills  from  the  collection  of  carbon. 
On  our  return  he  had  the  carbon  burned  out 
again  and  the  knock  ceased. 

I  advised  him  to  raise  the  cylinders  one-fourth 
of  an  inch  by  a  fiber  gasket  under  each  cylinder 


Little  Knocks  Are  Hardly  Boosts    253 

casting,  thus  increasing  the  size  of  the  combustion 
chamber  and  naturally  lessening  the  compression. 
He  also  had  to  adjust  the  water  connection  and 
raise  the  valve  push  rods,  and  a  few  things  of  that 
sort.  He  ran  the  car  upwards  of  2000  miles  after 
that  before  it  began  to  show  any  signs  of  knocking 
under  severe  conditions,  indicating  that  the  cyl- 
inders needed  to  liave  the  carbon  removed. 

Where  the  knock  is  caused  in  this  way  by  a 
slight  compression  increase,  it  indicates  that  the 
manufacturer  has  put  the  pressure  as  high  as  the 
engine  will  stand,  and  the  only  way  to  cure  it  is  by 
raising  the  cylinders  or  lowering  the  pistons.  The 
gasket  is  the  simpler  method. 

This  trouble  was  very  obvious  in  one  model  of 
car  used  for  road  instruction  at  the  Automobile 
School.  No  amount  of  ordinary  adjustment  and 
cleaning  out  of  the  carbon  would  keep  the  car 
from  knocking  after  very  short  service.  It  was 
taken  to  the  service  station  several  times  and 
returned  with  the  remark  that  it  would  "be 
all  right  now."  It  was  not  all  right.  Finally  the 
request  was  made  to  let  the  car  remain  at  the 
station  several  days  and  the  experts  would  see 
what  could  be  done.  When  it  was  returned  the 
trouble  was  cured.  But  when  the  expert  was 
asked  what  had  been  done  he  replied:  "Nothing 


254     Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

much."  He  admitted  cleaning  out  the  carbon 
and  adjusting  the  carburetor.  But  a  still  hunt 
was  made  for  the  corrective  cause  and  it  was  dis- 
covered that  fiber  gaskets  had  been  put  under  the 
cylinders.  They  were  camouflaged  with  enamel  to 
conceal  their  presence,  their  existence  was  denied, 
and  they  were  like  the  man  without  a  country, 
"unhonored  and  unsung,"  but  they  did  the  trick, 
and  until  the  car  was  retired  because  of  old  age 
and  decrepitude  the  gaskets  stood  between  the 
engine  and  the  knock.  Perhaps  if  that  agent 
picks  up  this  volume  one  day  he  will  be  surprised 
to  find  that  his  subterfuge  was  discovered.  It 
may  have  been  his  little  secret. 

The  owner  who  learns  this  remedy  for  knocking 
due  to  carbon  and  high  compression  will  be  saved 
a  lot  of  worry  and  be  enabled  to  cure  the  engine's 
ills,  or  have  it  done  at  the  shop.  But  take  it 
from  the  writer  that  carbon  accumulation  will 
cause  any  of  the  high  compression  engines  to 
knock,  and  the  only  way  to  cure  it  is  to  lessen  the 
compression  or  continually  clean  out  carbon. 
Also  the  only  simple  way  to  lower  the  compression 
is  to  raise  the  cylinder  with  a  fiber  gasket. 


CHAPTER  XXXIX 

SOME    OTHER   CAUSES    OF  KNOCKING 

THE  motorist  must  not  imagine  that  all  knocks 
come  from  too  great  compression,  however,  for 
there  are  "fifty-seven  other  varieties"  of  knock  to 
be  taken  into  consideration.  He  must  not  take 
it  for  grr  nted  that  the  cylinders  are  filling  up  with 
carbon  ii  the  engine  starts  knocking  while  out  on 
the  road,  nor  is  it  a  foregone  conclusion  that  the 
main  bearings  are  loose. 

The  knock  may  be  from  a  totally  different 
source.  In  fact  there  are  so  many  different  kinds 
of  knocks  that  even  an  expert  cannot  always  tell 
just  where  one  comes  from  without  totally  dis- 
assembling the  engine.  Even  then  it  sometimes 
puzzles  him  a  lot  by  its  elusiveness. 

Most  engines  have  a  knock  of  some  sort  which 
annoys  the  driver,  which  might  vary  from  a 
barely  perceptible  click  to  a  blow  that  may  be 
heard  by  persons  standing  on  the  sidewalk.  A 
great  many  of  the  knocks  do  not  do  any  harm; 
255 


256     Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

that  is,  they  are  not  causing  any  damage  to  the 
engine  parts;  but  there  are  some  knocks  which 
require  immediate  attention  to  prevent  the  demoli- 
tion of  the  engine  or  seriously  damaging  it.  Some 
of  these  are  loose  connecting-rod  bearing ;  cylinder 
loose  on  its  base;  lack  of  lubrication  and  conse- 
quent overheating;  and  a  broken  revolving  or 
reciprocating  member,  which  might  tear  things  up 
if  allowed  to  run.  The  spark  advanced  too  far 
puts  an  excessive  strain  on  the  crank  shaft,  and  a 
short  circuit  in  the  ignition  does  the  same. 

On  the  other  hand  there  is  no  immediate  danger 
if  there  is  a  piston  slap,  though  pretty  noisy;  nor 
is  there  when  the  oil  pump  gives  a  thump  or  loud 
click  at  the  valve  seating.  But  on  general  princi- 
ples when  there  is  a  knock  its  cause  should  be 
ascertained  at  once  and  expert  advice  be  obtained 
as  to  whether  it  is  dangerous.  If  so,  it  must 
be  fixed  before  running  further.  If  it  is  only  a 
minor  knock  the  repair  can  be  left  to  a  more 
convenient  time. 

So  many  of  the  knocks  are  only  a  matter  of 
annoyance;  that  is,  they  do  no  more  harm  than 
to  cause  the  driver  unnecessary  nerve  jars  and  to 
spoil  the  pleasure  of  riding.  But  he  will  bother 
the  various  garage  men  and  everybody  else  he 
can  get  to  listen  and  then  will  not  accept  the 


Some  Other  Causes  of  Knocking    257 

assurance  that  the  knock  is  not  doing  the  car 
any  harm. 

As  a  matter  of  fact  there  are  knocks  peculiar 
to  certain  makes  of  engines  that  the  manufacturers 
have  not  seen  fit  to  eliminate  because  they  are 
not  harmful.  Among  these  is  the  so-called  "gas 
knock."  Now  the  writers  do  not  know  what  a 
"gas  knock"  is,  and  doubt  if  anybody  else  does. 
But  it  is  a  common  term  for  the  kind  of  a  knock 
which  cannot  be  located  anywhere  and  it  is  laid 
to  some  action  of  the  gas. 

Sometimes  the  knocks  are  hard  to  locate.  One 
of  the  school  cars  needed  a  new  cam-shaft  gear 
to  replace  a  worn  one  which  produced  a  knock. 
It  was  put  on,  but  when  the  engine  was  started 
it  was  found  that  there  was  a  worse  knock  than 
before.  It  took  a  long  time  to  find  that  it  was  the 
new  gear.  It  fitted  very  tight  on  the  shaft  and 
had  to  be  forced  on.  Without  being  noticeable 
the  forcing  had  cracked  the  hub,  the  crack  extend- 
ing through  the  rim,  so  that  two  of  the  teeth  were 
out  of  true  and  had  spread  enough  to  pound  when 
that  portion  of  the  gear  came  into  mesh. 

Another  knock  difficult  to  locate  is  caused  by 
sticking  exhaust  valves.  One  of  the  valve  stems 
has  been  oiled,  say,  and  this  has  been  allowed 
to  burn  to  a  nice  sticky  paste.  Now,  when  the 


258     Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

push  rod  opens  the  valve  and  starts  down  the 
valve  does  not  follow  closely.  The  spring  brings 
it  down,  of  course,  but  more  slowly  than  it  should, 
because  of  the  sticky  stem,  and  when  the  stem 
and  push  rod  meet  there  is  a  thump. 

It  is  ordinarily  said  that  a  lean  mixture  or  an 
over  advanced  spark  will  cause  knocking.  As  a 
matter  of  fact  they  do  not  do  anything  of  the 
kind;  but  it  is  true  that  these  things  bring  to  our 
notice  other  faults,  such  as  a  worn  piston  or  cylinder 
wall  and  consequent  side  slap,  or  they  magnify 
some  other  worn  part  so  that  it  becomes  audible. 
As  a  matter  of  fact  it  is  possible  to  advance  the 
spark  so  far  that  it  will  try  to  reverse  the  engine 
and  not  have  a  particle  of  knock.  And  it  is 
possible  to  have  a  mixture  so  lean  that  it  will 
hardly  run  the  engine  yet  have  no  knock;  but  if 
there  is  something  else  wrong  it  will  bring  that 
out. 

Some  of  the  causes  of  knocking  discovered  at 
the  school  have  been  collated  and  are  given  for 
the  instruction  of  the  novice : 

Mechanical  Looseness,  Due  to  Improper  Adjustment, 
or  Wear: 

Loose  connecting-rod  bearing,  crank-pin  end. 
Crank-pin  bearing  out  of  round. 
Main  bearings  of  crank  shaft  loose. 


Some  Other  Causes  of  Knocking    259 

Bearings  too  tight. 

pin  loose  in  piston. 

Wrist  pin  loose  in  upper  cod  of  connecting  rod. 
Wii&l  pin  not  m  Ime  vilb  crank  shaft  causing 

side  slap. 

Piston  ixng  loose  in  slot  or  broken. 
Cam  follower  guide  worn. 
Cam  loose  on  shaft. 
Worm  cams  (Flat  spot). 
Ply-wheel  loose  on  crank  shaft  (oM  models  with 

keyed-on  wheel). 
Fly-wheel  oat  of  balance, 
Worn  or  broken  tfmfng  gemr  teeth. 
Cylinder  loose  at  its  base, 
Timing  gears  loose  on  shaft 
Engine  loose  from  frame. 

Piston  too  gmaTl  for  cylinder,  *->Mrf^g  side  slap. 
Poor  push-rod  adjustment—  gap  too  great. 
Exhaust  or  inkt  vahre  sticking  in  gxnde. 
Spark  plug  touching  valve. 
JaJagneto  coupling  Vw^^ 
Fan-belt  coupling  striking  pulley. 
i"  3.n  J.j.^ii5  ?  T  T"L  rd  n  <  >f  "id  i~-  \"c.  c 
Worn  cylhider,  causing  side  skp. 
Bent  crank  shaft 


Spark  advanced  too  far. 

Spark  too  late,  causing  overheating. 

^  ,","""     J"    r  J  ___  I  ^    '_"_          "       "          "     ^      f  "  .....  "-    "_]    ".  ~~~~  J  J~-  - 

spark. 

Spark-plug  points 
them  to  overheat. 


260     Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

Spark  plug  in  poor  position. 

Wrong  timing  of  ignition  system;  too  early,  too 

late,  or  wrong  order. 
Dirty  distributor,  misdirecting  the  current. 

Faulty  Carburetion: 

Pre-ignition,  due  to  excessive  carbon  deposits. 

Rich  mixture,  causing  overheating. 

Lean  mixture,  in  conjunction  with  worn  parts. 

Faulty  Lubrication: 

Lack  of  oil. 

Lubricants  of  poor  quality. 

Excess  of  oil  causing  carbon  deposit. 

Overheating  of  Engine: 

Fan  not  working. 

Pump  parts  not  revolving. 

Radiator  clogged. 

Pipe  lines  clogged. 

Rubber  hose  defective  inside,  blocking  flow  of 

water. 
Ignition  timed  too  late. 

Faulty  Compression: 

Engine  designed  with  too  high  compression, 
causing  pre-ignition  when  throttle  is  wide 
open. 

There  are,  of  course,  many  other  causes  which 
contribute  to  the  little  noises  which  accompany 


Some  Other  Causes  of  Knocking    261 

the  car  along  the  road,  but  the  novice  will  find 
here  the  most  common  ones,  and  by  a  process  of 
elimination  may  arrive  at  his  particular  bane; 
to  find  it  naturally  suggests  the  cure.  Therefore, 
stop  that  knocking. 


CHAPTER  XL 

CHASSIS  KNOCKS 

DOES  your  car  chatter?  Does  it  talk  to  you 
and  protest  against  running  over  holes  and  bumps 
in  the  road?  If  it  does,  it  is  a  sign  to  which  you 
should  pay  attention,  a  hint  that  you  should  do 
away  with  the  knocks  and  clicks  and  chattering 
which  annoy  you  and  everybody  else  within  hear- 
ing as  you  run  along.  That  is,  if  you  can  find 
them,  for  there  are  some  noises  so  obscure  as  to 
defy  detection  even  by  the  expert. 

Such  was  the  car  which  developed  a  sharp  click 
whenever  it  was  started  forward  or  backward. 
It  ran  quite  a  long  time  before  it  was  possible 
to  discover  just  what  and  where  it  was.  It  was 
somewhere  in  the  back,  but  so  hidden  as  to  defy 
detection.  The  rear  axle  was  of  the  floating 
type,  the  construction  in  which  the  driving  shaft 
is  connected  to  the  hub  of  the  wheel  by  a  number 
of  flutings  on  the  shaft,  into  which  corresponding 
projections  of  the  flange  fitted.  These  had  be- 
262 


Chassis  Knocks  263 

come  worn  and  allowed  sufficient  play  to  cause  a 
noise. 

By  walking  alongside  of  the  rear  wheel  while 
the  car  was  being  started  and  stopped,  it  was 
decided  that  the  sound  came  from  the  hub  of  the 
wheel.  The  hub  cap  was  removed  and  by  placing 
the  finger  on  the  hub  flange  and  end  of  shaft  at 
the  same  time  the  play  was  detected  by  the  sense 
of  feeling,  though  it  was  hardly  visible  to  the  eye. 
The  trouble  was  overcome  by  having  the  shaft 
welded  to  the  flange. 

A  few  days  later  the  owner  happened  to  be  at 
the  agency  and  told  what  he  had  found. 

"So  glad  you  came,"  was  the  response,  "for 
we  have  been  looking  for  the  same  kind  of  a  click 
a  long  time  ourselves  a'nd  the  service-station 
mechanics  have  not  been  able  to  locate  it.  They 
thought  it  was  in  the  brake,  but  upon  examination 
could  see  no  reason  for  a  click. 

There  have  been  cases  where  the  wheel  was 
keyed  on,  and  where  the  keys  had  acquired 
sufficient  play  to  cause  a  continuous  knocking, 
especially  when  the  machine  was  being  driven  at 
low  speed.  This  sort  of  knocking  is  more  likely 
to  occur  with  the  four-cylinder,  slow-speed 
engine  than  with  the  high-speed,  many-cylindered 
type. 


264     Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

A  mysterious  knock  may  sometimes  be  traced 
to  the  torque  rod,  when  it  becomes  loose  at  the 
forward  end,  or  to  worn  torque- tube  bearings, 
and  in  some  cases  the  bolts  fastening  the  torque 
rods  to  the  rear  axle  become  loosened,  or  worn, 
causing  a  knock,  especially  when  going  over  bumps 
or  dropping  into  holes. 

The  brake  rods  become  worn  and  set  up  a  con- 
tinuous clattering  on  rough  roads  and  this  noise  is 
accentuated  if  the  tires  are  kept  inflated  at  too 
high  a  pressure.  As  a  matter  of  fact  the  car  owner 
has  the  choice  between  the  greatest  life  for  his 
tires  and  accompanying  rattles  and  discomforts, 
and  riding  at  a  sufficiently  low  pressure  to  subdue 
these  noises  and  make  life  in  a  car  worth  living ;  of 
course  there  will  be  an  attendant  higher  wear  of 
tires.  Where  the  wear  cannot  be  taken  up  by 
adjustments  or  using  new  bolts  or  pins,  often  the 
rattle  may  be  ended  by  wiring  a  spiral  spring 
to  the  frame  and  rattling  part.  This  keeps  it 
taut. 

Worn  spring- shackle  bolts  will  not  ordinarily 
cause  knocking  or  rattling,  but  when  going  over 
bumps  or  holes  the  rebound  of  the  body  is  suf- 
ficient to  make  the  looseness  audible.  It  can  be 
overcome  by  having  a  new  bolt  put  in,  and  pre- 
vented by  keeping  the  bolts  well  lubricated. 


Chassis  Knocks  265 

Worn  steering-knuckle  pins  and  tie-rod  bolts 
will  sometimes  be  found  responsible  for  knocks 
and  rattles  in  the  front  end  of  the  car.  The 
remedy  is  obvious  and  the  location  of  the  noise 
is  not  so  hard  to  find. 

In  addition  to  these  we  have  rattles  due  to  tools 
being  thrown  loosely  into  the  tool  box,  and  some- 
times from  the  body  bolts  having  become  loosened. 
The  lamps  occasionally  jolt  loose  and  the  license- 
plate  bracket  is  sometimes  so  loose  that  it  is 
audible  as  well  as  visible. 

There  are  other  knocks  due  to  broken  gear  teeth 
and  other  broken  parts,  and  sometimes  these 
broken  teeth,  loose  nuts,  bolts,  or  pins  in  gear  or 
differential  case  become  wedged  between  the  gear 
teeth  and  cause  a  knocking  that  is  not  hard  to 
locate,  albeit  rather  expensive  to  repair. 

And  then  there  are  the  knocks  and  rattles  from 
the  hundred  or  more  accessories  which  are  attached 
to  the  chassis  of  many  cars  and  which  sooner 
or  later  develop  defects  and  noise. 

The  up-to-date,  well-designed  car  in  perfect 
shape  is  practically  noiseless,  and  if  a  knock  or 
rattle  develops  it  indicates  that  something  is 
worn  or  out  of  adjustment,  and  needs  attention. 
The  owner  who  takes  care  to  have  all  parts  pro- 
perly lubricated  and  kept  tight  need  fear  none 


266     Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

of  these  annoyances,  and  proper  attention  means 
lack  of  annoyance  when  out  touring,  while  slovenly 
habits  will  advertise  themselves  to  everyone  along 
the  road. 


CHAPTER  XLI 

KEEPING  DOWN  THE  AUTO  UPKEEP 

IF  the  general  run  of  auto  owners  and  chauffeurs 
do  not  mend  their  ways  city  streets  will  be  paved 
with  a  mixture  of  asphalt  and  auto  parts  and 
country  roads  will  be  lucrative  fields  for  the  junk- 
man. Anyone  who  doubts  this  need  but  inspect 
the  pavement  at  busy  corners  and  see  what  a 
collection  of  junk  is  strewn  along,  particularly  at 
the  places  where  many  cars  make  sudden  stops. 

To  illustrate:  The  other  day  a  car  stopped 
and  the  driver  pondered  what  was  the  matter 
that  the  engine  had  no  power.  Failing  to  get  a 
solution,  as  he  was  near  a  garage,  he  called. for  a 
mechanic  to  look  it  over. 

"A  few  minutes  ago,"  he  said,  "the  engine  had 
so  much  power  I  couldn't  stop  it  when  I  wanted 
to;  now  I  can't  make  it  pull  at  all." 

"Open  your  throttle,"  the  mechanic  said. 

"The  throttle  is  open,"  was  the  response. 

"Oh,  I  see,"  said  the  workman,  and  he  dis- 
267 


268     Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

appeared  into  the  garage.  In  a  few  minutes  he 
reappeared  with  a  small  bolt  and  proceeded  to  con- 
nect the  throttle  linkage  so  that  the  lever  and  accel- 
erator pedal  would  open  the  throttle  when  moved. 

What  had  happened  was  that  through  neglect 
the  bolt  had  worked  loose  and  dropped  out  so  that 
the  lever  did  not  move  the  throttle  arm,  and  ad- 
vancing the  lever  had  no  effect. 

This  bolt  probably  is  one  of  those  to  be  found 
imbedded  in  the  pavement  somewhere  about  the 
city.  An  examination  of  the  pavement  of  any 
of  the  automobile  thoroughfares  will  reveal  nearly 
all  the  fifty-seven  varieties  of  auto  accessory  parts 
in  the  asphalt.  A  great  many  of  the  bits  of  metal 
found  there  will  be  broken  skid-chain  links,  but 
the  writer  counted  twenty-six  different  species 
of  other  lost  parts  in  crossing  Fifty-seventh  Street 
at  Eighth  Avenue,  New  York  City. 

While  counting  them  a  driver  came  along 
and  was  unable  to  stop  his  car  properly — the 
brake  did  not  work  and  he  had  to  use  the  emer- 
gency brake  after  nearly  running  over  a  pedestrian. 
He  got  out  and  found  that  a  pin  was  gone  in  the 
brake  linkage.  A  spring  cotter  had  worked  out 
or  sheared  off  and  the  pin  had  rattled  loose  and 
dropped  out. 

Many  of  the  stray  parts  are  of  a  similar  nature; 


Keeping  Down  the  Auto  Upkeep    269 

nuts,  bolts,  washers,  screws,  cotter  pins  and  the 
like  which  have  worked  loose  because  of  neglect. 
Their  absence  will  doubtless  acount  for  a  good 
many  of  the  rattles  and  squeaks  which  their 
former  owner  is  now  complaining  of,  and  to 
replace  which  he  will  pay  the  garage  man  several 
times  their  value. 

The  average  instruction  book  given  with  a  car 
will  advise  the  owner  to  go  over  the  car  every  so 
often  and  tighten  up  the  bolts  and  nuts  as  a 
precautionary  measure,  but  usually  no  attention 
is  paid  to  this  until  the  car  stops  or  develops  some 
unusual  sound.  Then  a  mechanic  is  called  in 
and  it  takes  him  a  couple  of  hours  to  find  the  cause 
of  the  trouble,  while  -the  owner  stands  around 
cursing  the  maker  of  the  car. 

Probably  a  good  many  of  these  parts  along  the 
road  are  due  to  careless  mechanics  who  drop  small 
parts  in  the  dust  pan  and  will  not  take  the  trouble 
to  fish  them  out,  or  leave  them  on  the  running 
board  and  after  a  time  they  jar  off  to  the  roadway; 
but  it  shows  there  is  a  lot  of  carelessness  among 
drivers  when  they  even  lose  number  plates  and 
hub  caps. 

A  pair  of  brass  hub  caps  picked  up  along  the 
road  and  which  have  been  turned  into  ash  trays 
are  among  the  writer's  trophies. 


270     Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

The  loss  of  the  hub  caps  allows  grit  to  get  into 
the  bearings  and  to  prevent  this  as  far  as  possible 
by  making  the  driver  take  care  of  them,  the 
prices  of  extra  caps  have  been  made  entirely  out 
of  proportion  to  their  real  value  by  some  manu- 
facturers. 

Some  of  the  lost  parts  are  of  such  shape  that 
they  would  very  readily  puncture  a  tire,  so  that 
they  are  not  only  a  loss  to  the  owner  of  the  car 
from  which  they  dropped,  but  to  the  fellow  who 
follows  and  picks  them  up  for  a  punctured  tire. 

The  writer  has  seen  the  pin  holding  in  place 
the  tie  rod,  which  keeps  the  wheels  in  alignment, 
drop  out,  and  in  another  case,  hunting  a  knock, 
found  the  cylinder  loose  on  the  base  because  the 
nuts  had  been  without  lock  washers,  or  cotter 
pins,  and  had  worked  loose.  They  might  in 
time  have  worked  off  entirely  and  there  would 
have  been  a  "  cylinder  missing. "  He  has  also  seen 
the  entire  engine  loose  on  the  frame  so  that  it  was 
doing  a  fox  trot  while  running. 

Drivers  should  keep  watch  of  the  non-skid 
chains,  for  they  wear  and  drop  cross  links  often. 
The  driver  who  wishes  to  avoid  personal  annoyance 
and  annoyance  to  everybody  else  within  hearing 
distance,  will  take  pains  to  see  that  the  cross 
links  are  never  so  loose  that  they  hit  the  mud 


Keeping  Down  the  Auto  Upkeep    271 

guards,  nor  have  broken  ends  which  hit.  A 
spool  of  wire  will  enable  one  to  fasten  broken  or 
loose  cross  links  to  the  side  chains  and  repair 
links  can  be  put  in  when  the  garage  is  reached. 

The  owner  should  become  well  acquainted  with 
his  car,  so  that  he  knows  where  the  different  bolts 
and  nuts  are.  Many  will  tighten  up  all  they  know 
about,  but  do  not  bend  their  backs  to  get  under- 
neath where  they  can  see  the  dust-pan  bolts  and 
brake-linkage  bolts.  If  the  owner  knows  where 
these  parts  are  he  should  make  it  his  business  to 
see  that  every  bolt  and  pin  is  locked  with  a  lock 
washer  or  cotter  pin.  Then  he  should  go  over 
them  at  least  once  a  month  and  tighten  them  up. 
He  may  be  sure  he  will  pay  several  times  their 
value  and  a  mechanic's  time  if  they  are  lost,  so 
that  economy  is  involved  as  well  as  the  incon- 
venience of  having  the  car  stopped  on  the  road. 


CHAPTER  XLII 

HUNTING   TROUBLE 

ORDINARILY  the  fellow  who  starts  to  hunt  trouble 
finds  it  quicker  than  he  expected,  but  not  so  with 
the  automobilist ;  when  he  starts  to  hunt  trouble 
— in  the  car — it  seems  to  be  a  very  demon  for 
eluding  the  searcher.  Trouble  will  hide  in  a 
tiny  piece  of  carbon  lodged  under  a  valve  or 
between  spark-plug  points,  in  a  wire  that  has 
jarred  loose,  in  an  interrupter  point,  a  piston  ring, 
a  gas  pipe — oh,  in  the  most  secret  and  insignificant 
place — in  size — and  just  defy  one  to  ferret  out  the 
demon.  One  learns  that  the  insignificant  things 
are  really  the  most  important  at  times. 

Yet  most  troubles  incident  to  the  operation  of 
a  motor  car  may  be  located  very  quickly  if  one 
will  but  go  after  them  in  a  systematic  way,  and 
not  wander  aimlessly  about  the  engine  and  other 
parts.  The  hardest  thing  a  driver  has  to  do  when 
the  engine  stops  or  acts  up  is  to  divest  himself 
of  the  idea  that  he  knows  just  what  the  trouble  is. 
272 


Hunting  Trouble  273 

He  is  sure  he  can  fix  it  in  a  minute  and  he  putters 
around  a  long  time  before  he  makes  up  his  mind 
that  it  is  something  else  and  it  takes  a  lot  of  time 
to  prove  that  to  some  persons. 

The  best  way  to  go  about  it  is  to  start  without 
preconceived  ideas  as  to  what  the  trouble  may  be, 
and  follow  a  system,  which  is  really  a  process  of 
elimination.  Remember  that  to  start  a  gasoline 
engine  three  things  are  necessary — gasoline^  com- 
pression, and  a  spark  at  the  right  time,  and  that 
to  keep  it  running  it  is  necessary  to  have  water 
for  cooling,  unless  it  be  an  air-cooled  engine,  and 
oil  for  lubrication. 

If  the  engine  stops  on  the  road  and  pressing 
the  starter  pedal  fails  to  start  it,  or  if  one  or  twa 
cylinders  miss  fire,  the  first  thing  to  do  is  to  get 
the  crank  out  of  the  tool  kit  and  erank  over  the 
engine.  If,  with  the  gears  in  neutral,  the  engine 
cranks  over  hard,  it  indicates  a  lack  of  lubricating 
oil,  or  a  lack  of  water,  which  has  allowed  the 
engine  to  reach  a  temperature  where  the  lubricant 
fails  to  perform  its  work.  If  the  engine  turns 
over  fairly  easy,  it  is  not  necessary  to  look  for  oil 
or  water  trouble. 

The  next  test  is  for  compression.  If  the  driver 
is  not  experienced  and  is  unable  to  tell  simply 
by  the  resistance  to  the  starting  crank  whether 


274     Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

each  cylinder  has  compression,  he  should  open  all 
petcocks  except  on  one  cylinder  and  turn  the 
crank  two  revolutions,  noting  if  there  is  a  resist- 
ance for  one-quarter  of  a  revolution  in  the  two 
complete  turns.  Compression  occurs  only  on  one 
stroke  of  the  piston  in  the  four-stroke  cycle. 
Each  cylinder  should  be  tested  in  a  similar  manner, 
opening  all  petcocks  except  on  the  cylinder  being 
tested;  see  if  the  compression  is  practically  equal 
in  all  cylinders. 

If  one  cylinder  has  very  weak  or  no  compression, 
the  trouble  will  be  found  usually  in  the  exhaust 
valve.  First  examine  the  push  rod  to  see  if  there 
is  clearance  between  it  and  the  valve  when  the 
valve  is  supposed  to  be  closed;  if  there  is,  the 
valve  must  be  lifted  out  and  the  valve  and  seat 
inspected  for  carbon.  Sometimes  a  piece  of  car- 
bon will  lodge  on  the  valve  seat  and,  due  to  the 
hammering  of  the  valve,  will  become  fastened  to 
valve  or  seat.  For  temporary  repair  generally  it 
can  be  scraped  off  with  a  knife,  and  the  valve  be 
ground  in  upon  reaching  the  garage. 

If  the  trouble  is  not  in  the  exhaust  valve,  it 
might  be  in  the  inlet  valve.  In  some  types  of 
engines  the  valve  head  may  break  off  and  get 
into  the  cylinder  and  when  the  piston  comes  up 
punch  a  hole  in  the  piston  head.  A  petcock  may 


Hunting  Trouble  275 

be  loose  so  that  it  will  jar  open  sufficiently  to 
affect  the  compression  and  so  cause  the  cylinder 
to  miss  fire.  These  troubles  usually  are  confined 
to  one  cylinder  and  not  to  the  whole  engine. 

The  gasoline  is  the  next  to  be  inspected.  Is 
there  any  gasoline  in  the  bowl  of  the  carburetor? 
This  may  be  determined  by  inspection,  opening 
the  drain  cock,  or  "tickling" — flooding.  If  not, 
examine  the  gasoline  tank  and  see  if  there  is  a 
supply;  then  see  if  the  shut-off  valve  in  the  line 
leading  to  the  carburetor  is  open;  if  so,  drain  the 
bowl  of  the  carburetor  to  get  rid  of  water  or  possi- 
ble dirt.  To  check  the  possible  clogging  of  the 
gasoline  pipe,  or  carburetor  screen,  notice  if  the 
bowl  fills  up  again  in  a  reasonable  time. 

Do  not  adjust  the  carburetor.  If  the  engine 
has  been  running,  it  is  practically  certain  that  the 
carburetor  has  not  gotten  out  of  adjustment. 
Inspect  the  intake  pipe,  or  manifold,  to  see  if  it 
has  been  loosened  by  vibration.  If  the  engine 
still  refuses  to  run,  put  about  a  tablespoonful 
of  gasoline  in  each  cylinder  and  crank  over  the 
engine.  If  this  runs  the  engine  for  a  few  revolu- 
tions, it  indicates  that  the  trouble  is  in  the  gasoline 
system  and  leaves  but  the  spray  nozzle,  which 
may  have  dirt  lodged  in  it,  or  the  auxiliary  air 
valve  stuck,  as  the  remaining  causes  of  trouble. 


276     Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

Sometimes  turning  the  needle  valve  a  full  turn 
and  then  turning  it  back  exactly  where  it  was 
will  remove  an  obstruction  at  that  point.  Care 
should  be  taken  in  this  to  get  the  needle  valve  set 
as  it  originally  was. 

Next  inspect  the  ignition  system.  The  first 
thing  to  do  is  to  loosen  one  of  the  wires  from  a 
spark  plug  and  lay  it  so  the  bare  end  will  be  i 
inch  from  the  base  of  the  plug,  and  have  someone 
crank  the  engine  by  hand  or  with  the  starter. 
If  a  spark  does  not  occur,  go  first  to  the  interrupter 
points  and  short  circuit  the  fixed  point  with  a 
screw  driver  or  other  metal  tool  and  see  if  there 
is  a  spark  when  the  engine  is  cranked.  Examine 
the  points  for  dirt  and  see  if  they  come  together 
and  open  properly.  Then  examine  the  condition 
of  the  battery,  testing  it.  Examine  the  con- 
nectors on  the  battery,  which  sometimes  jar  loose ; 
examine  the  wires  leading  to  the  interrupter  and 
switch;  see  if  they  are  loose  or  broken  or  short- 
circuited.  This  need  not  be  done  if  a  spark  shows 
at  the  interrupter. 

Examine  the  distributor  for  moisture  or  dirt 
and  see  if  the  wires  have  become  loose.  If  a 
magneto  only  is  used,  it  is  a  simple  matter  to 
see  if  the  interrupter  points  are  making  and 
breaking  properly  and  if  the  distributor  is  clean 


Hunting  Trouble  277 

and  dry.  If  these  appear  to  be  all  right  the 
trouble  doubtless  is  in  the  armature  winding  or  the 
condenser  and  cannot  be  repaired  upon  the  road. 

The  wires  to  the  plugs  may  be  burned  or  short- 
circuited.  If,  with  an  apparently  good  spark, 
you  have  compression  and  there  is  mixture  pass- 
ing into  the  cylinders,  the  trouble  may  be  in  the 
spark  plug.  To  test  a  spark  plug  it  is  necessary 
to  remove  it.  Widen  the  gap  to  ^  inch  and  lay 
the  plug  with  wire  attached  upon  the  cylinder; 
crank  the  engine  and  see  if  a  spark  jumps  the  gap. 
Widening  the  gap  is  necessary  because  the  spark 
will  not  jump  so  far  under  compression  as  in  the 
open  air.  If  it  does  not  jump,  the  plug  may  have 
a  broken  insulator  porcelain  or  need  cleaning.  If 
uncertain  about  the  condition  of  the  plug,  ex- 
change it  with  one  in  another  cylinder  which  is 
working  properly.  An  extra  set  of  plugs  should 
be  carried  to  replace  those  which  become  dirty; 
cleaning  should  be  done  in  the  garage. 

This  covers  most  of  the  usual  troubles  experi- 
enced on  the  road.  There  are,  of  course,  a  great 
many  other  possibilities,  but  if  these  tests,  care- 
fully made,  do  not  disclose  the  cause  of  the  trouble, 
the  novice  had  better  send  for  a  garage  man.  If 
one  or  two  cylinders  miss  fire,  the  trouble  is  most 
likely  to  be  caused  through  lack  of  compression 


278     Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

or  a  short-circuited  spark  plug.  If  the  engine 
refuses  to  run,  the  trouble  is  most  likely  to  be  due 
to  lack  of  gasoline,  or  failure  of  battery  or  magneto. 

The  general  rule  given  herewith  should  be  copied 
and  pasted  under  the  hood,  or  carried  in  an  envelope 
in  the  tool  box  for  ready  reference.  It  may  save 
much  time  and  trouble  when  far  from  a  garage. 
Carefully  followed,  it  should  locate  almost  any 
trouble  likely  to  be  experienced,  and  it  is  the  locat- 
ing, not  the  fixing,  which  takes  time. 

The  chart  on  the  next  page  was  evolved  out  of 
the  experience  of  years  at  the  school  and  elsewhere. 
It  will  be  found  a  guide  in  hunting  trouble : 


Hunting  Trouble 


279 


THE  Y.  M.  C.  A.  GENERAL  TROUBLE  CHART 

Above  all  remove  nothing  from  the  engine  except  as  directed 
to  test  rules. 

Needed 
to 
Make 
an 
Engine 
Run 

I.   GASOLINE 

Is  tank  full?  ARE  PIPES  CLEAN? 
[s  Carburetor  clean?  If  Carburetor 
needs  adjusting,  do  it,  otherwise  LEAVE 
IT  ALONE.  Does  Manifold  leak? 

2.   COMPRES- 
SION 

To  test  —  Open  all  petcocks  except 
the-  one  on  cylinder  to  be  tested; 
crank  engine,  noticing  how  strong 
the  compression  is  in  each  cylinder, 
in  turn. 

3.    IGNITION 

at 
the 
right 
time 

A.  Test  for  a  spark  by  taking  the 
wire  off  any  plug;  hold  wire  about  g-" 
irom  plug;  crank  engine  with  switch 
on.  Spark  should  jump  to  plug. 

B.  Are  the  Batteries  run  down  ? 
Does  the  vibrator  (if  any)  buzz?  Is 
timer  clean?  Does  timer  rotor  make 
good  contact? 

C.  Are  any  WIRES  loose,  burnt,  wet, 
broken,  or  short-circuited  ?  Are  spark 
plugs  clean  and  are  points  -5*5*  apart? 

D.  Does  MAGNETO  armature  re- 
volve? Is  safety  spark  gap  clean. 
Are  Interrupter  points  clean  and  ad- 
justed right?  Do  all  Brushes  make 
good  contact?  Is  Distributor  clean? 
Is  Distributor  Rotor  loose,  broken,  or 
making  poor  contact? 

E.  Check  Magneto  wires  as  per  "C." 

NOTE  —  Loose  wires  and  terminals,  neglected  batteries,  and 
dirty  gasoline  cause  much  trouble. 

TO  KEEP  A  GAS  ENGINE  RUNNING,  cooling  and  lubrication  and 
a  free  exhaust  are  necessary. 

CHAPTER  XLIII 

MORE    TROUBLE 

"You  may  have  your  self -starting  6-,  8-,  or  12- 
cylinder  cars  if  you  want  them,  but  give  me  a 
four-cylinder  motor  with  a  crank  on  the  front  end 
for  mine.  I'll  get  there  ahead  of  you  nine  times 
out  of  ten." 

This  was  the  boast  of  a  chauffeur  of  a  big 
car,  who  called  at  the  school  to  inquire  about 
some  action  of  the  motor  which  he  did  not 
understand.  His  self-starter  would  not  start. 
A  few  simple  tests  narrowed  the  trouble  to  the  self- 
starter  control,  and  it  was  found  in  the  switch, 
which  had  become  .lirty.  From  repeated  arcing 
the  spring  had  'become  heated  and  lost  its  temper 
and  finally  no  contact  was  made,  or  so  little  that 
it  would  not  supply  current  to  start  the  starter. 
Which  shows  that  it  is  a  good  thing  to  keep  the 
temper,  even  in  a  self-starter  switch  spring. 

This  is  only  one  instance  where  added  conveni- 
ences have  brought  new  troubles  to  the  motorist. 
280 


More  Trouble  281 

The  self -starter  has  made  it  possible  for  many, 
notably  women,  to  drive  cars,  who  before  could 
not  because  they  were  not  able  to  crank  the 
engine.  Adding  cylinders  has  made  smoother 
riding  cars,  which  drive  easier  as  well.  The 
greater  number  of  cylinders  permits  of  a  much 
quicker  getaway  in  traffic.  It  allows  the  motor 
to  be  run  at  a  much  lower  speed  without  shifting 
the  gears.  The  motor  has  more  power  and  the 
cars  are  better  hill  climbers;  there  is  a  better 
distribution  of  u!ie  same  amount  of  power. 

But  this  has  made  more  work  and  worry  for  the 
chauffeur  and  mechanic,  in  that,  instead  of  having 
eight  valves  to  grind  in,  he  may  have  as  many 
as  twenty-four,  and  if  the  double-valve  idea  is 
carried  far  enough  he  might  have  as  many  as 
forty-eight.  In  arranging  the  cylinders  to  procure 
a  more  even  torque,  in  some  instances  it  has  been 
found  necessary  to  locate  the  valves  in  positions 
where  they  are  not  readily  accessible.  In  some 
types  it  is  necessary  almost  to  dismantle  the  en- 
gine, and  in  others  the  valves  may  be  reached  to 
remove  them  only  by  removing  the  mudguard. 

The  self-starter,  while  undoubtedly  a  great 
convenience,  has  made  it  necessary  to  take  care 
of  the  battery  regularly,  and  to  keep  the  generator 
and  motor  commutators  in  condition;  has  multi- 


282     Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

plied  the  wiring — has  added  hundreds  of  wires 
to  the  car — and  its  numerous  regulators  and 
other  instruments  are  bound  to  need  adjusting 
occasionally.  The  extra  care  and  the  unusual 
troubles  give  the  chauffeur  a  lot  more  to  worry 
about. 

The  electric  lights  are  undoubtedly  brighter  and 
better  than  kerosene  or  acetylene  installation,  but 
they  will  give  trouble  occasionally  and  the  aver- 
age man  understands  more  about  filling  a  lamp 
with  oil  than  he  does  about  locating  troubles 
in  electric  circuits.  Then  there  are  electric 
warmers,  electric  heaters  for  passenger  and  driver, 
electric  cigar  lighter,  limousine  lights,  and  electric 
horns,  which  make  additional  wires  until  the 
traditional  Philadelphia  lawyer  would  be  totally 
inadequate  to  unravel  the  tangle. 

Suppose  the  ignition  goes  wrong  and  the  battery 
seems  to  be  all  right  and  no  cause  of  trouble  can 
be  found  in  the  magneto  and  its  wires,  and  the 
chauffeur  is  in  a  pickle.  Along  comes  Mr.  Man- 
Who-Knows  and  finds  that  the  trouble  is  a  short 
circuit  in  a  lighting  installation  which  impaired  the 
ignition  so  that  the  cylinders  would  not  fire,  or 
fired  irregularly. 

.The  old  cars  did  not  have  generators  and  motors ; 
but  the  driver  now  must  know  how  to  sandpaper 


More  Trouble  283 

commutators  and  undercut  the  insulation  of 
commutators,  which  is  an  electrical  engineer's 
job;  and  he  must  be  wise  enough  to  know  that 
these  things  are  necessary  because  there  is  spark- 
ing at  the  commutator,  and  the  generator  is  not 
charging  the  battery  as  it  should,  and  the  motor 
is  not  starting  the  engine  as  it  ought.  This,  of 
course,  is  because  the  brushes  are  overriding  the 
commutators  when  the  insulation  is  not  undercut, 
and  the  contact  period  is  shortened,  and  perhaps 
some  of  the  contacts  are  skipped  altogether 
because  the  high  speed  carries  the  brushes  over 
without  touching  the  commutator. 

Then,  he  must  know,  for  instance,  that  when  the 
lights  dim  while  the  engine  is  going  at  low  speed, 
it  is  because  the  reverse  current  cut-out  is  out  of 
adjustment  and  it  requires  a  considerable  discharge 
from  the  battery  into  the  generator  in  order  to 
make  the  cut-out  operate,  when  the  lights  will 
become  bright  again. 

Also,  he  must  know,  when  the  volt  or  am- 
meter needle  becomes  erratic,  sometimes  show- 
ing a  big  charge  or  a  little  charge  or  no  charge  at 
all  and  then  comes  to  normal  again,  that  he  has  a 
loose  connection  somewhere  or  the  voltage  regula- 
tor is  not  working  properly. 

When  he  presses  the  button  of  the  electric  horn 


284     Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

and  it  does  not  sound,  but  does  work  right  after  he 
has  kicked  or  pounded  it,  he  ought  to  know  why 
his  rage  started  it  working.  It  was  simply  that 
the  brush  stuck  upon  a  dead  contact  point  of  the 
commutator,  due  to  a  dead  armature  coil,  and 
when  he  jammed  the  horn  it  moved  the  com- 
mutator until  a  live  contact  point  was  against  the 
brush  and  the  motor  started  to  work. 

There  was  a  time  when  the  manufacturer 
pointed  with  pride  to  the  fact  that  there  were 
no  complications  on  his  car.  There  was  nothing 
on  the  dash  but  the  ignition  switch,  with  one  wire 
leading  to  the  magneto.  This  followed  a  period 
when  the  dash  had  been  filled  up  gradually  with 
all  sorts  of  devices.  Ways  were  found  to  do  away 
with  them. 

Now  there  are  hundreds  of  wires  and  pipes 
tacked  on  to  the  dash,  and  the  other  side  of  the 
dash  fronting  the  driver  is  filled  with  dials  and 
gauges  and  switches  almost  without  number. 
These  all  add  to  the  comfort  of  the  motorist, 
but  in  the  same  proportion  they  add  to  the  worries 
of  the  driver.  He  pays  the  price  of  the  comforts 
in  added  worries.  Owners  also  find  that  these 
added  conveniences  have  given  demand  for  added 
technical  knowledge. 


CHAPTER  XLIV 

DON'T  TAKE  THINGS  FOR  GRANTED 

DON'T  take  anything  for  granted  with  your 
car.  Don't  expect  that  there  is  water,  or  gasoline, 
or  oil,  or  current  in  the  battery,  unless  you  have 
first  inspected  to  find  out.  Inspect,  don't  expect. 
There  are  many  bad  habits  in  car  practice,  and 
one  of  them  is  the  evil  of  absent-mindedness  in 
locating  troubles  in  your  car. 

The  man  who  spent  half  an  hour  looking  for  his 
glasses,  and  then  discovered  they  were  on  his 
nose,  should  not  be  laughed  at  by  anyone  who 
runs  a  motor  car.  It  is  only  natural  that  this  man 
should  take  it  for  granted  they  were  not  on  his 
nose,  yet  taking  things  for  granted,  writes  Harold 
F.  Blanchard,  in  Motor  Life,  is  the  greatest  diffi- 
culty that  the  man  who  has  to  locate  trouble  has 
to  face,  whether  he  is  an  amateur  or  an  expert. 
A  number  of  cases  are  cited  to  prove  the  point. 

Everyone  knows  better  than  to  crank  the  engine 
with  the  switch  off,  yet  recently  we  saw  an  average 
285 


286     Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

motorist  waste  twenty  minutes  this  way.  The 
ignition  switch  was  set  in  the  center  of  the  lighting 
switch  handle.  Therefore  the  absolute  position 
of  the  ignition  switch  key  varied  according  to 
what  lights  were  on — hence  the  error;  yet  this 
motorist  looked  all  over  his  engine  before  he  dis- 
covered his  trouble.  Probably  being  absent- 
minded  had  something  to  do  with  it;  he  had  just 
left  his  office  for  the  day  and  was  on  his  way  home, 
which  demonstrates  that  the  thoughtless  or  pre- 
occupied man  is  much  more  likely  to  make  un- 
rightful  assumptions  than  the  alert  man. 

Recently  an  old  automobile  -mechanic  was 
riding  on  an  interurban  car  when  the  latter  was 
held  up  by  a  motor  car  stalled  across  the  tracks. 
There  was  a  big  crowd  around  the  machine  trying 
frantically  to  push  it  out  of  the  way.  For  some 
reason  the  rear  wheels  were  locked.  No  amount 
of  effort  would  budge  the  car  and  it  was  too  large 
to  lift  and  carry. 

The  mechanic  got  off  and  watched  the  pro- 
ceedings. He  found  that  the  gear  lever  was 
stuck  in  low  gear,  and  inquiry  as  to  whether  the 
trouble  was  due  to  jammed  gears  or  some  other 
serious  defect  could  not  be  answered  by  the 
owner  or  any  of  his  helpers.  He  began  to  wonder 
where  the  trouble  was  while  the  others  struggled, 


Don't  Take  Things  For  Granted    287 

but  being  old  in  the  game,  the  thought  flashed 
across  his  mind:  "Take  nothing  for  granted." 
Therefore  the  first  question  to  determine  was 
whether  the  whole  difficulty  might  not  be  solved 
by  pushing  out  the  clutch.  This  seemed  too  easy 
— too  good  to  be  true.  He  hesitated  to  suggest 
it,  but  the  more  he  thought  about  it  the  more  he 
became  convinced,  and  finally  he  mustered  up 
enough  courage  to  slip  behind  the  wheel  and 
command  the  resting  crowd  to  push.  The  car 
glided  off,  to  the  astonishment  of  everyone.  It 
developed  that  the  owner  of  the  car  had  become 
excited  when  he  stalled  the  engine  on  the  crossing 
with  the  lever  stuck  in  low.  In  his  feverish  haste 
he  tried  to  push  the  car  off  instead  of  shoving  out 
his  clutch  and  starting  the  motor,  and  as  the 
crowd  collected  they  accepted  the  locked  condition 
of  the  rear  wheels  as  something  which  could  not 
be  remedied. 

A  motorist  of  ten  years'  experience  bought  a 
used  car.  He  took  delivery  of  it  late  one  rainy 
afternoon.  The  former  owner  told  him  the  car 
was  complete,  the  only  thing  missing  being  the 
key  to  the  tool  box,  which  he  promised  to  mail 
him  early  the  next  day.  The  motorist  got  a 
couple  of  friends  and  started  for  a  ride.  Finally 
they  stopped  for  dinner.  When  they  came  out 


288     Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

the  owner  put  his  foot  on  the  starter  pedal,  but  it 
stuck.  He  pulled  up  the  floor  boards  but  could 
not  reach  the  mechanism.  The  only  way  was  to 
crawl  under  the  car  and  this  was  out  of  the  ques- 
tion because  of  the  mud.  They  looked  for  the 
crank  under  the  rear-seat  cushion  and  under  the 
front-seat  cushion,  but  could  not  find  it.  Quite 
naturally  they  concluded  it  must  be  in  the  locked 
tool  box  or  else  the  former  owner  had  neglected 
to  include  this  very  important  item.  They  tried 
to  locate  a  car  of  the  same  make  in  some  neighbor- 
ing garages  without  success.  They  jacked  the 
car  up  and  tried  to  crank  it  by  turning  a  rear 
wheel,  but  the  compression  was  too  great,  so  they 
tossed  the  jack  into  the  tonneau  and  started  in 
search  of  someone  who  would  tow  the  car  to  start 
it.  Eventually  they  got  the  engine  going.  When 
they  reached  the  garage  the  owner  slipped  his 
hand  into  the  tonneau  and  he  pulled  out — not 
the  jack — but  the  crank! 

The  worst  is  to  come.  The  next  morning  a 
mechanic  who  had  been  in  the  business  long  enough 
to  know  better  than  to  make  unwarranted  assump- 
tions was  called  in.  He  pressed  down  the  pedal 
without  success,  then  for  no  logical  reason  but 
simply  because  automobiles  were  second  nature 
to  him  he  pulled  up  and  the  pedal  came.  Then 


Don't  Take  Things  For  Granted    289 

he  pushed  and  the  starter  worked.  The  owner 
was  nonplussed.  Later  he  admitted  that  he  had 
thought  of  pulling  up  on  the  pedal  but  assumed 
it  would  do  no  good. 

A  few  years  ago,  when  expanding  clutches  were 
more  popular,  a  motorist  found  one  day  that  his 
clutch  was  slipping.  He  had  a  vague  idea  that 
there  must  be  some  means  for  adjusting  the 
clutch  to  cure  this  trouble,  but  he  looked  in  vain 
for  a  nut  or  a  screw  or  a  bolt  which  might  do  the 
trick.  True,  there  was  a  small  screw  in  the  fly- 
wheel rim,  set  almost  flush  with  the  edge  of  the  rim 
and  locked  by  a  tiny  spring  wire  which  rested  in 
the  milled  slot  in  the  screw.  But  he  limped  to  a 
garage  on  low  gear  and  held  consultation  with  the 
entire  force.  They  examined  the  car  carefully 
and  decided  there  was  no  way  to  adjust  the  clutch. 
They  suggested  a  new  lining  or  strips  of  metal 
under  the  old  lining  to  swell  it  out  so  that  it  would 
grip.  The  former  was  out  of  the  question  because 
of  the  time  it  would  take,  so  the  latter  was  tried. 
The  makeshift  worked  all  right  for  a  few  miles, 
and  then  the  clutch  slipped  more  than  ever.  In 
desperation  he  called  the  agent  up  on  the  long 
distance,  and  was  informed  that  his  troubles 
would  be  over  if  he  would  give  that  innocent- 
looking  screw  a  couple  of  turns.  It  sounded 


290     Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

like  black  magic,  but  he  went  back  and  tried  it, 
and  his  troubles  ended. 

An  owner  who  was  very  particular  about  having 
his  car  in  the  best  of  condition  found  that  the 
compression  in  the  first  cylinder  was  weak  although 
the  valves  had  just  been  ground.  He  removed 
the  exhaust  valve  and  found  it  in  perfect  condition. 
Then  he  took  out  the  intake  valve,  although  he 
felt  foolish  while  doing  it.  It  was  in  excellent 
shape  but,  just  to  be  on  the  safe  side  and  because 
he  did  not  know  what  else  to  do,  he  ground  it 
anyhow.  The  trouble  was-  no  better.  Neither 
did  the  difficulty  seem  to  be  due  to  too  small  a 
clearance  between  valve  stems  and  push  rods, 
because  the  clearance  was  the  prescribed  amount 
on  both  intake  and  exhaust  valves.  He  concluded 
that  it  must  be  the  rings.  Either  they  were 
gummed  or  broken.  Flooding  the  cylinder  with 
kerosene  did  not  improve  the  condition,  so  a 
pint  of  very  heavy  oil  was  put  in  with  the  idea 
that  this  would  temporarily  stop  any  leaks  between 
cylinder  and  piston,  but  the  compression  was  no 
better.  Several  times  during  the  -hunt  he  was 
tempted  to  increase  the  clearance  between  valve 
stems  and  push  rods,  not  for  any  sensible  reason, 
because  the  clearance  was  correct,  but  simply 
in  desperation.  It  seemed  about  the  only  thing 


Don't  Take  Things  For  Granted    291 

left  to  do — it  was  the  only  thing  he  had  not  tried. 
But  his  "common  sense"  said  no,  so  he  took  his 
car  to  the  service  station.  The  first  thing  they 
did  was  to  increase  the  clearance  on  the  intake 
valve,  and  the  trouble  was  cured.  The  reason 
for  doing  this  was  that  there  was  a  high  spot  on 
the  back  of  the  intake  cam  which  would  open  the 
valve  a  slight  amount  on  the  compression  stroke. 
The  clearance  was  increased  to  a  point  where  the 
high  spot  had  no  effect. 

One  day  a  motorist  had  serious  magneto  trouble. 
The  engine  missed  and  finally  stopped.  It  was 
necessary  to  take  the  magneto  to  an  expert  to 
have  it  repaired.  The  very  day  the  magneto  was 
replaced  the  car  started  missing  again  and  it  looked 
as  if  the  work  had  not  been  properly  done.  Fi- 
nally the  engine  refused  to  go  further.  A  passing 
farm  wagon  was  hailed  and  the  car  brought  home 
— seven  miles.  The  magneto  was  returned  to  the 
shop,  but  nothing  wrong  was  found.  Yet  when 
it  was  replaced  the  car  still  refused  to  run.  A 
telephone  talk  with  the  nearest  agent,  forty  miles 
away,  showed  that  the  trouble  might  be  in  the 
carburetor  and  a  search  showed  that  it  was — 
the  low  speed  jet  was  clogged.  To  prove  the 
truth  of  this  suspicion  the  engine  was  primed  and 
ran  perfectly  except  at  low  speed.  When  the  car 


292     Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

first  stalled,  it  occurred  to  the  owner  that  it  might 
be  a  good  idea  to  prime  the  engine,  but  he  dis- 
missed the  thought  because  he  was  so  certain  the 
trouble  was  in  the  magneto,  and  without  a  better 
reason  than  it  was  too  much  work  to  prime  the 
engine  because  there  were  no  priming  cups. 

A  similar  trouble  in  that  it  was  of  a  dual  nature 
was  experienced  with  a  car  which  had  just  had  the 
valves  ground  and  the  carbon  removed.  After 
the  work  was  done  the  engine  could  not  be  started. 
Investigation  showed  there  was  no  spark.  No 
short-circuits  could  be  found  in  the  wiring.  The 
breaker  points  were  examined  and  after  filing  and 
adjusting  them  the  engine  started  on  the  first 
turn.  Fortunately  the  man  who  did  this  job 
knew  how  to  proceed — he  made  no  guesses  or 
assumptions.  In  this  he  was  different  from  the 
owner  whose  experience  was  related  elsewhere. 

The  last  two  instances  show  something  it  is 
very  important  for  everyone  to  realize,  although 
this  is  a  diversion,  namely,  that  repair  men  are 
often  blamed  for  tampering  with  cars  without 
cause.  The  preceding  incident  was  pure  coinci- 
dence. The  breaker  points  gave  out  entirely 
when  the  engine  was  shut  off  prior  to  grinding  the 
valves. 

The  various  incidents  which  have  been  related 


Don't  Take  Things  For  Granted    293 

prove  that  it  is  not  wise  to  take  anything  for 
granted.  It  seems  like  a  simple  rule,  but  only  those 
who  have  tried  to  follow  it  will  find  out  how  hard 
it  is.  It  is  also  important  to  bear  in  mind  that  it 
is  not  wise  to  use  too  much  logic  in  hunting  trouble, 
for  the  solution  is  often  far  from  logical.  It 
is  well  to  reason  as  carefully  as  possible,  but  if  the 
solution  is  still  to  be  found  it  often  happens  that 
it  is  obtained  by  some  illogical  act.  Follow  the 
general-trouble  rule  in  an  orderly  way,  therefore, 
and  do  not  take  anything  for  granted. 


CHAPTER  XLV 

BLOWING  YOUR  OWN  HORN 

OF  course  it  is  your  horn  and  you  have  a  right  to 
do  anything  you  want  to  do  with  it — except  make 
a  nuisance  of  yourself  to  others — and  you  can  toot 
it  to  your  heart's  content  when  off  in  some  wilder- 
ness ;  but  if  you  desire  to  live  in  peace  and  harmony 
with  your  neighbors  and  with  your  fellow  travelers 
in  this  vale  of  tears,  you  will  have  a  care  when  and 
where  you  toot  your  toots. 

In  olden  days  it  was  compulsory  to  have  bells 
on  the  horse  when  drawing  a  sleigh,  which  was 
supposed  to  be  noiseless.  The  bells  were  to 
give  warning  of  the  sleigh's  approach  around  a 
curve  or  over  the  hill.  This  was  the  only  Vehicle 
to  have  a  warning  tone,  except  the  fishman  or 
the  junk  cart,  and  their  noise  was  inviting — 
ostensibly — rather  than  warning,  though  often 
it  ought  to  have  been  the  latter. 

Soon  after  the  coming  of  the  bicycle  it  became 
apparent  that  some  means  of  signalling  its  ap- 
294 


Blowing  Your  Own  Horn  295 

proach  must  be  had.  Now  singularly  enough  in 
the  light  of  present-day  understanding,  the  bicycle 
bell  or  horn  was  not  to  warn  people  to  get  out  of 
the  way.  It  was  to  warn  folks  that  you  were 
looking  out  for  them  and  that,  unless  they  stepped 
suddenly  in  your  path,  they  might  feel  assured 
that  you  would  not  run  into  them.  Everybody 
understood  that  the  pedestrian  had  first  right  to 
the  road.  Bicycle  riders  practiced  strenuously  the 
ways  to  avoid  the  man  afoot — most  of  them. 

With  the  coming  of  the  automobile  the  use  of 
horns  was  continued,  early  electrics  and  some 
others  using  a  bell.  They  were  the  continuance 
of  the  bicycle  warning,  and  when  the  automobile 
was  popularizing  itself  it  was  understood  that  the 
bell  or  horn  was  merely  to  prevent  others  from 
walking  into  danger.  The  autoist  saw  to  it,  so 
far  as  he  could,  that  the  man,  woman,  or  child 
went  safe. 

Came  another  generation  and  the  universal 
use  of  the  automobile  for  pleasure,  business,  and 
transportation  uses,  and  all  of  a  sudden  people 
began  to  talk  about  the  rights  of  the  autoist,  and 
the  horn  began  to  peremptorily  order  folks  to 
get  out  of  the  way  or  get  run  over.  There  is 
not  the  slightest  doubt  in  the  mind  of  the  writer 
that  the  present  attitude  of  autoists  in  general  is 


296     Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

due  to  the  mistaken  notion  that  they  have  rights  in 
the  roadway  part  of  the  street  and  the  pedestrian's 
rights  are  confined  to  the  sidewalks  and  crossing 
walks ;  nor  that  this  notion  was  bred  by  the  police 
regulations  of  traffic  which  sought  to  protect  the 
pedestrian  by  herding  him  off  the  road  to  the  side 
walks  and  permitting  him  at  intervals  to  cross 
the  road.  It  is  noticeable,  however,  that  not  one 
arrest  for  refusing  to  keep  off  the  roadway  has 
ever  been  made — or  at  least  sustained  by  court. 
The  policeman  may  frown  at  the  man  who  tries  to 
go  contrary  to  the  traffic  rule,  but  that  is  all. 

Out  of  this  misunderstanding  there  has  come 
such  a  constant  use  of  horns  as  to  make  it  a  con- 
tinual nuisance  on  thickly  traveled  streets  and 
even  on  much  traveled  highways  in  the  country. 
And  the  nuisance  is  not  from  the  necessary  signal- 
ing to  other  cars  or  vehicles,  but  the  unnecessary 
tooting  the  driver  does  because  he  wants  every- 
body to  know  that  he  is  coming  and  to  understand 
that  they  must  get  out  of  the  way  for  him. 

Now  a  certain  amount  of  signaling  is  needed 
in  driving,  but  it  is  possible  to  drive  through  the 
thick  traffic  of  New  York  City  from  the  Battery 
to  Harlem  without  tooting  the  horn  half  a  dozen 
times — that  is  if  one  is  a  careful  and  well-instructed 
driver. 


Blowing  Your  Own  Horn  297 

Watch  other  drivers  and  pedestrians  and  do  not 
blow  the  horn  after  they  have  seen  you,  or  if  their 
direction  and  speed  of  travel  is  such  that  they 
will  be  out  of  your  way  before  you  get  to  them. 
If  not  seen,  sound  the  horn  once  and  be  ready  to 
stop.  As  a  matter  of  fact  the  foot  should  in- 
stinctively go  to  the  brake  pedal  each  time  the 
hand  goes  to  the  horn.  But  if  you  are  seen  by  the 
other  person  why  blow  the  horn  at  all? 

If  one  is  driving  along  a  country  road  and 
desires  to  pass  another  car  going  in  the  same 
direction,  it  is  customary  to  sound  the  horn  once 
that  the  driver  ahead  may  not  turn  his  car  in  front 
of  you,  and  so  that,  if  needed,  he  may  turn  to  the 
right  to  let  you  pass  on  the  left.  He  is  the  judge 
as  to  when  and  where  he  will  turn,  since  he 
can  see  ahead  better  and  knows  what  obstruc- 
tions are  to  be  avoided.  With  few  exceptions  he 
will,  when  signaled,  immediately  give  way;  if  he 
does  not,  and  it  is  fair  to  presume  that  he  heard 
the  signal,  it  is  polite  to  wait  a  moment  before 
again  signaling  your  desire. 

One  also  should  signal  just  before  reaching  the 
top  of  a  hill,  particularly  if  the  road  be  a  narrow 
one,  that  anyone  coming  up  on  the  other  side 
may  know  of  your  presence  and  be  guided  accord- 
ingly; likewise  the  signal  should  be  given  before 


298     Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

coming  to  a  cross-roads,  unless  there  is  a  plain 
view  of  both  roads  for  a  sufficient  distance  to 
make  sure  that  a  collision  is  not  likely. 

Occasionally  one  will  catch  up  to  a  farmer's 
load  of  hay,  and  the  signal  will  not  be  heard,  and 
it  becomes  necessary  to  toot  a  number  of  times, 
but  this  is  rare.  In  meeting  a  wagon  or  another 
auto  it  is  not  necessary  to  sound  the  horn  unless 
it  is  apparent  that  the  other  driver  does  not  see 
you,  or  is  keeping  to  the  crown  of  the  road,  expect- 
ing you  to  do  all  the  turning  out.  Well,  even  then, 
sometimes,  it  is  better  to  do  it,  at  that. 

As  a  rule,  it  is  easier  on  one's  temperament,  and 
safer  in  the  long  run,  to  let  the  fellow  who  wants 
all  the  road  have  it;  therefore  when  you  hear  a 
speed  fiend  coming,  his  presence  announced  by 
vociferous  tooting  of  the  horn  and  perhaps  punctu- 
ated by  shouting,  or  oaths,  draw  to  one  side  and 
slow  up.  It  costs  little  either  in  time  or  effort, 
and  if  it  happens  to  be  a  load  of  drunken,  irre- 
sponsible loafers  you  will  be  safe.  At  the  same 
time,  if  you  have  influence  with  the  police  and 
other  officials,  call  their  attention  to  persons  who 
thus  disregard  others  and  see  that  they  are  fined 
and  their  licenses  taken.  For  the  meekness 
advised,  in  letting  them  have  their  own  way,  is 
but  that  you  may  survive  to  do  a  piece  of  good 


Blowing  Your  Own  Horn  299 

work  for  the  country  at  large  by  bringing  before 
the  law  those  who  violate  all  principles  of  courtesy 
and  rules  of  the  road. 

Blow  your  own  horn,  if  you  want  to,  but  blow 
it  discreetly;  let  others  blow,  too,  and  heed  the 
warning,  lest  you  come  to  grief  with  them. 


CHAPTER    XLVI 

WOMEN    AS    DRIVERS 

THE  5.19  had  stopped  at  Lonesomehurst,  and 
the  grating  sound  of  the  Klaxon  had  caused  more 
than  one  commuter  to  wish  there  were  a  law 
against  harsh  noises.  To  Cholly  Subbubs,  how- 
ever, it  had  a  welcome  tone,  and  he  grabbed  for 
his  bundles  and  umbrella,  saying  while  he  dashed 
to  the  door  and  swung  off  the  train  as  it  pulled 
out: 

"  Sorry,  boys ;  finish  the  game  tomorrow.  Wife's 
here  with  the  car  for  me." 

His  partners  at  whist  saw  him  step  into  a  smart 
car  driven  by  Mrs.  Subbubs,  who  turned  it  about 
and  took  the  road  parallel  with  the  track  and  for 
several  miles  gave  race  to  the  train,  while  sundry 
passengers  uttered  wise  sayings  as  to  the  folly 
of  a  woman  trying  to  run  an  auto. 

A  woman  can  run  a  car  as  well  as  a  man  [one 
of  the  commuters  finally  averred,  as  an  answer  to 
the  criticism  of  the  wiseacres].     I  expect  my  wife 
300 


Women  as  Drivers  301 

will  be  at  the  next  station  and  we  will  have  a 
twenty-five-mile  spin  before  dinner.  It  will  blow 
off  all  the  grouch,  and  blow  out  of  my  lungs  all  the 
bad  air  I  have  had  to  breathe  today,  and  give  me  an 
appetite  that  would  do  credit  to  a  man  who  has 
been  toting  bricks  up  a  ladder  rather  than  selling 
bonds. 


He  had  told  the  story  of  the  new  era  of  auto- 
mobiling  which  has  come  to  the  metropolis. 
Wife,  the  chauffeur!  Now  what  is  happening 
about  New  York  City  is  an  old  story  in  some 
parts  of  the  country,  but  the  latest  wrinkle  in 
suburban  travel  about  these  parts  is  for  friend 
wife  to  meet  the  train  two  or  three  stations  up  the 
line  and  take  tired  hubby  for  a  ride  on  the  way 
home.  Having  learned  to  run  the  car,  she  had 
been  taking  him  to  the  station  and  meeting  him 
at  night.  One  night  he  was  startled  to  hear  her 
familiar  signal  on  the  horn — he  knows  his  master's 
voice — some  distance  from  the  home  station, 
looked  out  of  the  window  and  just  had  time  to 
swing  off  on  the  station  platform.  Now  he  is 
keen  for  that  sound.  Probably  every  commuter 
train  which  leaves  the  city  each  evening  in  pleasant 
weather  has  several  such  scenes. 

It  is  not  a  fad,  either,  but  the  solution  of  the 
fresh-air  problem  for  pent-up  business  men;  the 


3O2     Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

relaxation  from  the  daily  cares  and  just  the  most 
delightful  visit  with  each  other  that  devoted  ones 
can  have.  In  the  summer  evenings  there  is  time 
for  a  long  ride  before  dining;  in  the  cooler  evenings 
of  fall  and  winter,  when  dark  comes  before  hubby 
is  due,  good  roads  still  are  inviting  and  the  crisp 
air  rejuvenates  one  and  creates  an  appetite  which 
is  alarming,  the  high  cost  of  living  considered. 

Women  in  the  East  began  to  take  an  interest  in 
running  an  automobile  about  the  time  the  self- 
starter  was  put  on  the  market,  three  or  four  years 
ago.  Cranking  is  not  a  feminine  job  and  old 
models  of  cars  bore  no  semblance  in  convenience 
and  ease  of  handling  to  those  now  on  the  market ; 
they  are  more  reliable  and  dependable  than  the 
ancient  makes. 

Then,  too,  women  in  New  York  are  used  to 
being  waited  upon.  They  are  not  of  the  aggressive 
type,  and  do  not  care  for  man's  work;  while  in  the 
West  they  are  more  self-reliant.  That  is  only 
natural,  since  the  western  women  have  been 
thrown  more  upon  their  own  resources;  having 
helped  the  men  subdue  prairie  and  forest  and 
desert,  the  younger  generation  has  not  departed 
from  their  footsteps.  There  are  self-reliant 
women  in  New  York,  of  course,  but  of  a  different 
type,  and  one  would  hardly  expect  them  to  want 


Women  as  Drivers  3°3 

to  own  or  operate  a  car  themselves;  but  they  are 
beginning  to,  by  the  thousands. 

Another  reason  for  the  slowness  of  women  to 
take  up  auto  driving  is  that  New  York  City  is 
not  a  place  for  pleasure  driving;  but  in  the  sub- 
urbs they  are  taking  it  up  rapidly,  as  the  increas- 
ing daytime  honk-honk  indicates.  In  the  city  it 
is  unnecessary,  for  there  is  every  convenience 
for  shopping  or  calling  at  beck  and  call — taxis, 
buses,  and  rent  cars.  These  things  are  not  to  be 
had  so  largely  in  the  suburbs,  and  when  hubby 
is  at  business  and  the  chauffeur  is  at  his  grand- 
mother's funeral,  or  has  too  heavy  a  load  of  "Oh, 
be  joyful, "  for  safety  or  pleasure,  it  is  a  case  of 
stay  at  home,  or  learn  to  run  the  thing  for  her- 
self. She  learns,  and  then  does  not  have  to  worry 
about  the  chauffeur  going  around  the  corner  for  a 
highball  while  she  is  calling. 

So  far  as  mastering  the  mechanical  and  technical 
details  of  a  car,  women  seem  to  be  just  as  apt  as 
most  men,  if  they  take  it  seriously  enough.  The 
fact  that  mechanical  talen*  is  not  limited  to  the 
male  sex  is  indicated  by  the  numerous  automobile 
developments  which  are  the  product  of  the  feminine 

brain. 

TheY.  M.  C.  A.  Automobile  School  has  been 
taking  women  pupils  for  three  years  and  among 


304     Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

the  four  hundred  graduates  have  been  every  type, 
from  the  society  debutante  to  the  mature  matron, 
chorus  girl,  actress,  and  a  few  who  desired  to 
become  professional  chauffeurs — ' '  Jit  Chicks  "  they 
call  them  in  Philadelphia — with  a  lot  of  appli- 
cations from  school  teachers.  It  does  not  appear 
why  so  many  of  that  class  have  taken  the  course, 
but  one  of  the  instructors  says  that  most  of  them 
are  learning  so  that  at  vacation  time  they  can 
take  their  car  instead  of  the  ocean  steamer  or 
railroad  train  and  spend  two  months  "seeing 
America."  One  of  them,  however,  declares  that 
she  intends  to  become  a  professional  chauffeur 
during  vacation,  so  that  she  can  make  money 
while  enjoying  a  full  relaxation  from  her  ordinary 
labor.  She  teaches  at  an  exclusive  club-colony 
center  and  will  run  her  car  there. 

When  the  first  woman  applicant  came,  it  caused 
some  of  the  instructors  to  gasp : 

"Why,  a  woman  cannot  understand  an  engine." 

"Only  because  they  never  have  tried,"  was  the 
response.  "Give  me  a  chance — I'll  show  you." 

"But  you  would  get  all  dirty.  The  men  have 
to  crawl  under  the  cars  and  get  covered  with 
grease  and  grime, "  was  objected. 

"If  they  get  any  dirtier  than  I  did  this  morning 
when  I  had  to  clean  out  the  kitchen  stovepipe, " 


Women  as  Drivers  305 

was  the  comeback,  "then  I'll  give  up;  grease  has 
no  fearsomeness  for  a  housewife." 

Of  course  the  director  gave  in,  as  man  ever  has 
yielded  to  woman,  and  today  the  women's  de- 
partment of  the  school  is  a  fixture,  for  woman 
has  demonstrated  that  she  can  understand  ma- 
chinery and  wires  and  things  and  learn  how  to 
pilot  a  car  and  do  all  sorts  of  other  stunts  with  it. 

It  is  no  child's  play  to  which  the  woman  student 
is  ushered  when  beginning  the  course.  She  goes 
right  at  a  machine  and  first  of  all  has  to  learn  what 
the  array  of  bolts  and  valves  and  belts  and  wires 
is  for.  The  women  put  on  big  aprons — or  over- 
alls— and  gloves,  and  with  sleeves  rolled  up  start  to 
dissect  one  of  the  cars  as  a  doctor  does  a  cadaver. 
From  starting  crank  to  differential  and  from 
spark  plug  to  oil  sump  it  all  has  to  come  down, 
and,  worse  yet,  has  to  be  put  together  again.  The 
dainty  young  thing  in  dimity — under  the  jumper — 
gets  her  arms  greasy  and  a  splotch  on  her  nose, 
but  she  doesn't  care  a  bit,  for  it  all  washes  off  and 
she  knows  that  back  of  the  nose  she  is  accumulat- 
ing something  that  won't  wash  off — a  knowledge 
of  an  intricate  machine — and  she  is  fascinated. 

She  has  to  learn  about  tires,  too;  how  to  take 
them  off  and  repair  and  replace  them.  It  is  just 
a  bit  odd  to  see  a  woman  patching  an  inner  tube  as 


306     Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

handily  and  as  daintily  as  though  she  were  em- 
broidering a  bit  of  Christmas  frumpery ;  but  really 
she  handles  the  shears  to  cut  the  patch  a  lot 
more  readily  than  most  men,  and  she  puts  the 
patch  in  place  as  carefully  as  though  she  were 
mending  the  seat  of  her  young  hopeful's  rompers. 

When  the  student  has  mastered  the  mechanical 
part  and  has  overcome  all  the  "queering"  the 
instructor  can  devise,  she  is  taken  out  for  road 
experience.  When  she  has  the  car  ready,  supplied 
with  gasoline,  lubricating  oil,  water  for  the  radia- 
tor, and  all  the  other  things  which  make  for  safety 
and  successful  operation,  and  has  cranked  the 
engine,  unless  there  is  a  self-starter,  then,  with 
hands  and  feet  engaging  the  steering  wheel,  levers, 
and  pedals,  the  momentous  hour  has  come  when 
the  machine  is  to  be  under  her  control.  The 
instructor  is  provided  with  a  duplicate  set  of  levers 
for  an  emergency.  Lessons  begin  in  the  quiet 
streets,  gradually  emerging  into  those  busier,  until 
at  last  Fifth  Avenue  and  Forty-second  Street,  the 
busiest  intersection  in  the  metropolis,  is  reached. 

The  women  always  enjoy  that.  Never  one 
but  shows  she  is  having  the  time  of  her  life  at  that 
corner.  They  are  expected  to  lose  their  heads 
and  "go  up  in  the  air,"  but  they  do  not.  They 
are  not  so  reckless  as  men,  are  quicker  to  grasp  a 


Women  as  Drivers  307 

situation,  and  do  not  "take  a  chance"  as  men  do. 
Alertness  is  an  attribute  of  most  women,  also 
intuition,  and  these  are  qualities  needed  by  an 
auto  driver. 

The  era  of  low-priced  cars  undoubtedly  has  had 
something  to  do  with  the  influx  of  women  into 
auto  driving.  Thousands  to  whom  a  high-priced 
car  with  liveried  chauffeur  must  ever  be  a  dream, 
are  able  to  have  a  moderate  or  low-priced  car  for 
the  whole  family.  Mother  will  not  let  her  sons 
and  daughters  distance  her  in  anything,  so  she 
learns  too. 

Whatever  may  be  the  cause,  it  is  a  fact  that  the 
women  of  the  country  are  taking  up  the  auto 
seriously.  There  already  are  too  many  in  the 
city  streets  to  excite  even  casual  notice,  but  in  the 
suburbs,  where  there  is  an  almost  total  absence  of 
men  during  the  daytime,  every  car  you  meet  has  a 
woman  at  the  wheel.  There  is  no  indication, 
however,  that  man  has  been  relegated  to  the 
care  of  the  nursery.  He  still  is  too  valuable  as  a 
producer  for  that — producer  of  gasoline  and  tires 
and  what  not.  But  the  chauffeur  who  drives 
for  a  living  must  take  account  of  the  woman  at 
the  wheel,  for  it  means  lessened  opportunity ;  still, 
the  use  of  trucks  is  increasing,  and  woman  is  not 
likely  to  be  a  competitor  there — not  yet. 


CHAPTER  XLVII 

MISCELLANEOUS    RULES 

BELOW  are  given  a  number  of  rules  for  doing 
things  about  an  automobile,  which  may  help  the 
novice  remember  the  instructions  heretofore  given 
by  the  agent  from  whom  he  bought  the  car,  or 
obtained  at  the  service  station,  in  the  manu- 
facturer's book  of  instructions,  or  elsewhere. 

FOUR  THINGS  TO  DO  BEFORE  LEAVING  THE  GARAGE 

Be  sure  there  is  plenty  of  water. 

Be  sure  there  is  plenty  of  gasoline. 

Be  sure  there  is  plenty  of  oil. 

Be  sure  there  is  plenty  of  air  in  the  tires. 

FIVE  THINGS  TO  DO  BEFORE  CRANKING  THE  ENGINE 

.   Be  sure  the  emergency  brake  is  set. 
Be  sure  the  gear-shift  lever  is  in  neutral  position. 
Retard  the  spark  fully. 
Open  the  gas  hand  throttle  about  one-third. 
Throw  switch  to  battery  position. 
308 


Miscellaneous  Rules  309 


THREE  THINGS  TO  DO  AFTER  CRANKING 

Close  the  throttle  until  the  engine  idles. 
Advance  the  spark  about  two-thirds. 
Switch  from  battery  to  magneto. 

TO  ADJUST  A   CARBURETOR 

Adjust  the  needle  valve  at  low  speed — engine 
idling. 

For  high  speeds  adjust  the  auxiliary  air  valve. 

(Owners  should  learn  the  make-up  of  their  car- 
buretor before  attempting  to  adjust  it,  and  should 
first  watch  someone  who  knows  how  to  do  it.) 

TO  ADJUST   CAM   SHAFTS   WHICH  TIME  VALVE 
OPENING  AND   CLOSING 

Make  sure  that  push-rod  adjustment  is  right — 
that  a  thin  card  will  pass  between  push  rod  and 
valve  stem  when  valve  is  closed. 

Determine  direction  of  rotation  of  cam  shafts. 

Set  fly  wheel  so  that  the  mark  I  T.  C.  (top  center) 
registers  with  pointer. 

Turn  fly  wheel  until  mark  10°  P.  T.  C.  (past  top 
center)  registers  with  pointer. 

Rotate  exhaust  cam  shaft  in  proper  direction 
until  the  exhaust  valve  of  No.  i  cylinder  has  just 
closed. 

Rotate  inlet  cam  shaft  until  inlet  valve  of  No.  I 
cylinder  is  just  about  to  open. 

Mesh  the  gears  and  lock  them  in  place. 

If  No.  i  cylinder  is  right  the  others  must  be. 


3io     Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

RULE    FOR   TIMING    THE    MAGNETO 

Find  the  firing  order  of  the  engine. 

Turn  crank  shaft  of  engine  and  note  directions  in 
which  armature  and  distributor  of  magneto  should 
revolve. 

Set  No.  I  cylinder  on  beginning  of  power  stroke  by 
watching  exhaust  valve  just  close  and  then  turning 
crank  one  complete  revolution. 

Set  fly  wheel  so  that  mark  No.  I.  T.  C.  registers 
with  pointer. 

Retard  spark  fully — by  moving  breaker  box  in 
same  direction  as  arrow  points  or  armature  rotates, 
as  far  as  it  will  go. 

Rotate  armature  in  proper  direction  until  inter- 
rupter points  are  just  about  to  open. 

In  this  position  mesh  gears  and  lock  magneto  to 
base. 

At  this  point  prove  your  work  by  advancing  spark. 
If  points  are  right  they  will  open. 

Notice  what  point  in  distributor  the  rotor  is 
touching.  This  goes  to  No.  I  cylinder. 

Wire  distributor  in  firing  order  of  the  engine. 

(The  distributor  always  rotates  in  opposite  direc- 
tion to  the  armature.) 

RULES  FOR  CARE  OF  CLUTCH 

To  remedy  a  harsh  gripping  leather-faced  cone 
clutch,  apply  neatsfoot  oil  or  castor  oil  to  leather 
face. 

To  remedy  a  slipping  leather-faced  cone  clutch, 
apply  fuller's  earth  or  French  talc  to  leather  facing. 
In  rare  cases  a  little  gasoline  may  be  used. 


Miscellaneous  Rules  311 

To  remedy  a  harsh  gripping  multiple  disc  clutch 
that  runs  in  oil,  add  engine  oil  to  the  mixture. 

To  remedy  a  slipping  multiple  disk  clutch  running 
in  oil,  add  kerosene  to  the  mixture. 

Too  little  spring  tension  will  cause  slipping. 

Once  every  100  miles  turn  down  all  grease  cups 
on  the  clutch. 

Once  every  500  miles  apply  neatsfoot  oil  to  a 
leather-faced  clutch. 

Once  every  1000  miles  drain  a  multiple  disc 
clutch  and  clean  thoroughly  with  kerosene  and 
renew  the  oil. 

RULES   FOR   CARE   OF   TRANSMISSION   AND 
DIFFERENTIAL 

It  must  be  kept  half  filled  with  very  heavy  oil. 
(Consult  manufacturer's  instructions.) 

Once  every  500  miles  inspect  and  replenish 
lubricant  if  need  be. 

Once  every  5000  miles  drain  case,  clean  thor- 
oughly with  kerosene,  and  renew  lubricant. 

RULES  FOR  CARE  OF  OTHER  PARTS 

Once  every  1000  miles  pack  universal  joint 
with  very  heavy  grease. 

Once  every  250  miles  use  oil  can  freely  and  turn 
down  all  grease  cups  on  torsion  and  radius  rods. 

Pack  the  wheel  hubs  with  grease  every  1000 
miles. 

Pack  the  steering  worm  housing  with  medium 
grease  every  500  miles. 

Oil  the  steering  mechanism  every  100  miles  and 
Lurn  down  all  grease  cups. 


312     Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

LUBRICATION  TIME-TABLE 

Lubricate  as  often  as  is  necessary.  The  safest 
rule  always  is  to  follow  the  manufacturer's  in- 
structions. 

Every  100  miles:  Use  oil  can  freely;  turn  all 
grease  cups  down  two  or  three  turns. 

Be  sure  that  these  parts  are  well  lubricated: 
Steering  apparatus,  clutch,  spring-shackle  bolts, 
crank  handle,  fan,  valve-rocker  arms,  wheel  hubs. 

Every  250  miles:  Give  same  care  to  braking 
apparatus,  emergency  brake,  and  gear-shift  levers, 
and  rocker  shafts,  water  pump,  torsion  and  radius 
rods.  Clean  force-feed  oil  system. 

Every  500  miles:  Inspect  transmission  and  dif- 
ferential cases  and  refill  if  necessary;  pack  steering 
worm  housing;  apply  neatsfoot  oil  to  cone  clutch 
facing;  clean  gravity  and  circulating  splash  systems. 

Every  1000  miles:  Pack  universal  joints,  ball 
and  socket  boots,  hub  caps;  oil  magneto,  electric 
motor,  electric  generator;  clean  disc  clutch;  clean 
splash  system;  lubricate  spring  leaves  by  jacking  up 
frame  of  car,  spreading  leaves  apart,  and  putting 
graphite  mixed  with  gasoline  between  leaves. 

Every  5000  miles:  Drain  transmission  and 
differential  cases  and  clean  with  kerosene  and 
renew  lubricant;  clean  wheel  bearings  and  repack 
hubs  with  grease. 

Give  all  bearings  a  careful  inspection  and  take  up 
all  play. 

CARE  OF  STORAGE  BATTERY 

Keep  electrolite  over  top  of  plates  by  adding 
distilled  water. 


Miscellaneous  Rules  313 

Keep  top  of  battery  clean  and  metal  parts  covered 
with  vaseline  to  prevent  corrosion. 

Keep  holes  in  vent  plugs  open. 

Never  leave  battery  standing  in  a  discharged 
condition. 

Make  sure  it  is  tightly  fastened  on  car. 

Examine  battery  once  a  week  in  summer;  every 
two  weeks  in  winter. 

Take  hydrometer  readings  at  these  times;  never 
take  hydrometer  reading  immediately  after  adding 
water;  wait  fifteen  minutes  for  water  to  mix  with 
electrolite. 

If  one  cell  always  needs  water  examine  for  leaky 
container. 

INDICATIONS  OF  A  DISCHARGED   BATTERY 

Starting  motor  cranks  engine  slowly  or  not  at  all. 
Lamps  burn  dimly  or  not  at  all. 
Lamps  burn  brightly  when  first  turned  on  but 
soon  dim. 

Electric  horn  weak. 

Low  specific  gravity  of  electrolite. 

CAUSES  OF  DISCHARGED  BATTERY 

Generator  not  charging  battery. 

Generator  belt  slipping. 

Wires  short-circuited  or  grounded. 

Plates  not  covered  with  electrolite. 

Defective  or  leaky  cell. 

Excessive  lamp  load. 

Excessive  use  of  lamps  when  engine  is  stopped. 


314     Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

Car  not  being  run  fast  enough  to  charge  at 
sufficient  rate. 

Using  starter  too  much. 

Cut-out  not  working  properly. 

Broken  or  loose  connection  between  generator 
and  battery. 

(Storage  battery  efficiency  in  winter  is  half  that 
of  summer.) 


LOCATING    TROUBLES    IN    LIGHTING    AND    IGNITION 

SYSTEM 

If  no  charge  shows  on  dash  meter  when  engine  is 
running  at  speed  equal  to  15  m.  p.  h.,  connect  good 
ammeter  in  series  with  dash  meter;  if  this  meter 
shows  proper  charging  rate,  trouble  is  with  dash 
meter;  if  it  also  shows  no  charge,  connect  voltmeter 
with  generator  terminals.  If  it  indicates  a  very 
high  voltage,  generator  is  0.  K.  and  trouble  is 
between  generator  and  battery. 

Test  cut-out  and  examine  all  connections  and 
wires. 

If  lights  light  when  engine  is  stopped,  trouble  is 
between  generator  and  ammeter.  If  lights  do  not 
light,  trouble  is  between  ammeter  and  battery. 

If  no,  or  low,  voltage  is  indicated,  trouble  is  with 
the  generator,  regulator,  or  wire  between  generator 
and  regulator. 

If  starting  motor  will  not  crank  engine,  make 
sure  battery  is  0.  K.,  connections  bright  and  clean, 
commutator  and  brushes  in  good  condition,  and  that 
starting  switch  makes  good  contact.  Crank  engine 
by  hand  to  make  sure  some  mechanical  defect  is 
not  preventing  engine  from  turning. 


Miscellaneous  Rules  315 

If  starting  motor  spins  but  does  not.  crank  engine, 
pinion  or  drive  gear  may  be  loose,  chain  broken,  or 
overrunning  clutch  slipping.  If  a  Bendix  drive, 
pinion  may  stick  in  worm  due  to  dirt  in  threads. 

If  none  of  the  bulbs  light,  examine  connection 
at  battery,  ammeter,  lighting  switch,  and  wires 
between  those  units  for  breaks;  also  all  the  bulbs 
may  be  burned  out. 

If  a  grounded  system,  examine  ground  connec- 
tion at  frame. 

If  only  one  bulb  fails  to  light,  trouble  must  be  in 
its  own  circuit.  Take  trouble  lamp  or  voltmeter 
and  test  at  contacts  of  connector  at  lamp.  If 
you  get  current  at  this  point,  trouble  is  with  bulb 
or  contact  pins  sticking,  or  not  long  enough.  If 
you  do  not  get  current  at  this  point,  examine  fuses, 
connections  at  lighting  switch  and  connectors;  also 
wire  for  breaks. 

As  a  short  circuit  on  the  car  generally  shows  its 
presence  by  its  effect  on  battery,  preventing  it  from 
holding  a  charge,  if  meter  shows  discharge  all 
the  time,  remove  wire  from  meter  or  battery.  If 
needle  remains  on  discharge,  needle  is  stuck;  if  it 
drops  to  zero,  there  is  a  short  circuit  or  cut-out  does 
not  open. 

A  short  circuit  beyond  the  lighting  switch  will 
not  show  on  the  meter  until  switch  is  turned  to 
circuit  in  which  short  circuit  is  located.  This  will 
cause  lights  to  dim  and  show  a  heavy  discharge  on 
meter. 

As  there  are  other  circuits  whose  current  does  not 
pass  through  meter,  a  short  circuit  in  them  would 
not  be  indicated  on  meter,  but  would  be  indicated 
by  running  down  of  battery.  To  locate,  remove 


316     Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

all  bulbs,  also  all  wires  from  one  of  the  battery 
v  terminals.  Connect  one  side  of  the  trouble  lamp 
to  battery  terminal  and  the  other  side  of  lamp  to 
wires  removed.  Any  current  leaving  the  battery 
must  now  pass  through  the  trouble  lamp  causing  it 
to  light. 

i — If  trouble  lamp  lights  when  lighting  switch 
is  turned  off,  short  circuit  is  either  in  starting  motor- 
circuit,  generator  circuit  (or  cut-out  does  not 
open),  horn  circuit,  or  in  wires  between  lighting 
switch  and  battery,  or  in  ignition  circuit.  Elimi- 
nate one  circuit  after  another  until  trouble  lamp 
goes  out.  Then  examine  circuit  "on  which  it  goes 
out  for  short. 

2 — If  trouble  lamp  lights  only  when  lighting 
switch  is  on,  short  circuit  is  in  circuit  beyond 
lighting  switch.  Examine  circuit  indicated  on 
face  of  switch  when  in  position  that  trouble  lamp 
lights,  as  switch  can  be  divided  into  sections. 
Eliminate  one  section  after  another  until  trouble 
lamp  goes  out;  then  examine  this  circuit  for  short. 


CHAPTER  XLVIII 

THE  GOLDEN  RULE  OF  MOTORING 

THIS  volume  does  not  pretend  to  set  a  standard 
of  manners  for  owners  of  automobiles,  nor  does  it 
profess  to  be  a  first-aid  course  in  courtesy,  much  less 
suggest  lessons  in  gentlemanliness,  which  might  as 
well  be  called  gentleness  at  once;  yet  there  is  sad 
need  of  instruction  in  all  these  things,  if  one  may 
judge  by  the  experiences  of  the  road  and  of  the  inn 
and  garage  stops  along  the  way. 

Now  the  writer  believes  that  the  American 
citizen  is  a  gentleman  to  the  manor  born,  of 
natural  right  and  disposition,  and  that  he  does  not 
leave  his  manners  at  home,  as  he  is  supposed  to 
leave  his  religion  at  the  church  door.  A  gentle- 
man in  the  drawing-room  will  be  a  gentleman  on 
the  highway.  He  will  not  be  a  boor  because  the 
man  he  happens  to  meet  is  one,  not  even  if  the 
majority  are. 

Why  is  it,  then,  that  there  is  an  utter  absence 


3i8     Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

of  courtesy,  or  if  there  be  an  occasional  display 
of  good  nature  it  but  emphasizes  the  lack  of  it  in 
general?  Undoubtedly  this  is  a  fair  statement 
of  conditions  in  and  about  the  metropolis.  It  is 
not  true  to  anywhere  near  the  same  extent  in 
the  Western  country,  and  "Western"  ought  to 
be  understood  in  this  connection  as  anything  west 
of  the  Alleghany  range. 

The  writer  has  been  astounded  on  several  occa- 
sions in  Denver  and  other  Western  cities  at  the 
really  human  spirit  of  the  drivers.  They  actually 
stopped  of  their  own  accord  to  let  the  writer,  a 
pedestrian  at  the  time,  cross  the  street,  and 
did  it  in  so  gracious  a  way  as  to  make  it  seem  a 
real  pleasure.  Picture  that  on  Fifth  Avenue, 
New  York  City,  or  upon  any  of  the  highways  out 
of  the  metropolis  on  a  Sunday  or  holiday  in  warm 
weather. 

But  it  is  not  alone  in  the  attitude  of  the  driver 
toward  the  pedestrian  that  there  is  remissness, 
but  in  the  behavior  toward  other  drivers  that 
there  is  need  for  improvement.  What  is  easier 
than  to  cheerfully  make  way  for  the  man  who 
wishes  to  pass  by,  or  to  turn  aside  as  much  as 
may  be  necessary  for  the  other  car  we  meet;  to 
slow  up  at  the  intersection,  instead  of  spurting 
to  get  ahead  of  the  other  fellow,  and  making  him 


The  Golden  Rule  of  Motoring       319 

jam  on  the  brakes  to  avoid  a  collision?  Why  is  it 
necessary  to  try  to  get  the  best  of  the  other  fellow, 
as  though  driving  were  a  contest  of  wits  and  that 
skill  on  the  road  consisted  in  "beating  the  other 
fellow  to  it?" 

Perhaps  the  answer  to  all  this  criticism  is  that 
in  and  about  New  York,  where  there  is  a  dense 
population,  there  are  thousands  of  drivers  who 
are  not  from  the  ranks  of  the  well-bred,  by  which 
is  not  meant  the  wealthy.  The  low  price  of  cars 
and  the  thousands  of  used  cars  on  the  market  has 
put  them  at  the  disposal  of  the  butcher  boy  and 
the  hod  carrier  and  bell  hop,  and  they  seem  to  have 
the  idea  that  the  driver  of  a  car  possesses  superior 
rights  over  others  and  must  assert  it.  Out  in  the 
land  where  folks  have  a  chance  to  open  their 
lungs  and  breathe,  a  broader  view  of  life  is  held. 
It  is  a  fact,  however,  that  the  well-to-do  families 
of  the  East  are  more  and  more  requiring  of  their 
drivers  that  they  follow  the  golden  rule  and  not 
the  Eben  Holden  brand.  You  remember  Eben's 
version:  "Do  unto  others  what  they  are  trying 
to  do  unto  you,  and  do  it  fust." 

Secretary  of  State  Francis  M.  Hugo,  of  New 
York,  recently  delivered  an  address  to  a  group  of 
students  in  which  he  said  a  number  of  pertinent 
things  concerning  the  operation  of  cars,  based 


32O     Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

upon  his  own  experiences.     It  is  so  good  that  it  is 
reprinted  here: 

I 

It  is  not  too  much  to  say  that  the  future  of 
motoring  largely  depends  upon  the  behavior  of 
motorists  and  their  drivers  toward  the  public. 
As  fewer  owners  of  large  touring  machines  drive 
their  own  cars  nowadays  in  proportion  to  the 
number  driven  than  used  to  be  the  case,  it  is, 
therefore,  mainly  the  behavior  of  their  drivers 
on  the  road  that  is  important.  The  subject  of  the 
training  of  the  motor  man  is  consequently  worth 
much  attention,  and  that  the  automobile  community 
as  a  whole  realizes  this  is  evident  not  only  by  the 
establishment  of  various  schools,  where  the  mechani- 
cal side  of  the  profession  is  taught  to  the  future 
driver,  but  by  the  efforts  of  various  clubs  and  asso- 
ciations, notably  of  the  Y.  M.  C.  A.,  who  have 
started  schools  all  over  the  country  to  help  in  this 
training. 

For  the  past  few  years,  those  who  drive  motor 
cars  for  wages  have  been  called  "chauffeurs,"  a 
word  against  which  a  protest  should  always  be 
made  on  the  double  ground  of  etymology  and 
nationality.  To  begin  with,  the  word  in  reality 
means  "stoker."  On  the  foot  plate  of  a  French 
locomotive  the  driver  is  called  "  mechanicien, " 
while  the  fireman  is  designated  as  the  "chauffeur." 
In  the  case  of  motor  cars  propelled  by  steam,  the 
word  "chauffeur"  may  thus  be  held  to  be  remotely 
correct,  but  on  the  ordinary  car  propelled  by 
the  internal  combustion  engine  or  by  electric 
power,  there  is  no  sense  in  the  term.  In  the  best 


The  Golden  Rule  of  Motoring       321 

French  circles  also,  the  word  "  mechanicien "  is 
always  used  to  designate  the  driver  of  a  car  and 
the  word  "chauffeur"  even  in  France  is  said  to  be 
becoming  obsolete. 

The  motorman,  as  he  will,  therefore,  be  called, 
is  very  often  the  subject  of  much  discussion  and 
sometimes  of  irrational  abuse.  Of  course,  there 
are  black  sheep  in  this  profession,  as  in  every  other, 
but  one  is  glad  to  place  on  record  that  black 
sheep  were  far  more  numerous  five  years  ago  than 
they  are  now.  No  one  who  observes  without 
prejudice  the  behavior  of  motor-car  drivers  in  New 
York  City  and  elsewhere  can  help  being  struck  with 
the  careful  way  in  which  private  motor  cars  are  now 
driven,  the  neatness  and  cleanliness  of  the  men 
themselves,  and  the  vast  improvement  which  has 
taken  place  in  their  general  manners.  Formerly, 
it  was  thought  to  be  the  highest  mark  of  the  pro- 
fession that  a  motorman  should  be  dirty  in  every 
respect,  and  a  greasy  cap,  black  hands  and  face,  oily 
clothes  and,  as  a  rule,  a  half-smoked  dirty  cigarette 
in  the  side  of  his  mouth,  combined  with  a  contemptu- 
ous scowl  at  every  passer-by,  was  not  an  uncommon 
sight. 

This  state  of  things,  however,  has  changed 
for  the  better.  Occasionally  a  specimen  of  the 
primeval  driver  is  met  with,  and  even  now  the 
habit  of  cigarette  smoking  when  in  charge  of 
a  car  is  supposed,  by  the  younger  and  less  in- 
telligent men  of  the  profession,  to  confer  an  air 
of  knowledge  coupled  with  disdain.  In  course 
of  time  this  form  of  swagger  will  die  out  also. 
The  manners,  moreover,  of  many  motormen  to 
their  employers  and  to  their  fellow  servants  have 


322     Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

not  in  the  past  been  all  that  could  be  desired,  but 
as  stated  before,  their  general  behavior  is  markedly 
improving,  and  it  must  be  remembered  that, 
motormen  are  greatly  superior  in  intelligence  to 
most  of  their  predecessors. 

It  need  hardly  be  noted  here  that  much  depends 
upon  the  way  the  motorman  has  been  trained. 
When  automobiling  was  just  beginning  the  only 
person  available  who  even  half  knew  the  somewhat 
complicated  machine  of  the  early  days  was  the 
mechanic  trained  for  a  few  months  in  the  shop 
where  the  car  had  been  manufactured.  He  was 
master  of  the  situation  because  he  alone  had 
working  knowledge  of  its  parts.  No  one  in  those 
days  thought  for  one  moment  of  a  motorman  from 
the  viewpoint  of  good  driving.  The  owner  of  the 
car,  above  all,  desired  to  possess  a  good  mechanic, 
for  breakdowns  were  numerous  and  varied  and 
half  of  the  expenses  of  motoring  were  necessitated 
by  renewals  of  parts  or  adjustments  due  to  ordinary 
wear  and  tear.  Nowadays  serious  or  even  in- 
significant breakdowns  are  rare,  and  there  is  hardly 
a  first-class  make  of  car  in  the  market  which  will  not 
run  many  thousands  of  miles  without  anything 
being  necessary  in  the  way  of  repairs  and  adjust- 
ments. Those  which  are  necessary  are,  moreover,  of 
the  simplest  kind.  There  is  no  longer,  therefore, 
the  same  necessity  for  the  motorman  to  be  what 
is  called  a  really  good  mechanic,  so  long  as  he 
understands  the  general  principle  on  which  the 
-engine  works  and  the  arrangement  of  the  gears. 

The  majority  of  motor-car  owners  have,  therefore, 
changed  in  their  requirements.  They  do  not  want 
a  man  who  is  primarily  a  skilled  mechanic,  but  they 


The  Golden  Rule  of  Motoring       323 

do  ask  for  a  skillful  driver,  and  on  this  wise  alterna- 
tive in  the  chief  qualifications  demanded  lies  a  good 
deal  of  the  reason  for  the  great  change  which  has 
taken  place  in  the  behavior  of  the  motorman  in  the 
city  and  out  of  it.  It  may  be  remarked  that  an 
excellent  mechanic  is  not  necessarily  a  good  driver, 
though  he  may  be  so  in  certain  cases.  What  is 
required  in  the  driver  besides  the  general  knowledge 
of  the  machinery  is  a  knowledge  of  the  customs  and 
courtesies  of  the  road  and  the  habits  of  traffic,  the 
possession  of  the  qualities  of  alertness,  foresight, 
and  consideration  for  others.  Above  all,  he  should 
have  a  temperate  frame  of  mind,  an  abstinence 
not  only  from  drunkenness,  but  drinking  in  any 
but  a  most  moderate  sense.  The  driver  of  an 
ordinary  wagon  is  conspicuous  by  his  ignorance  of 
the  way  to  drive  and  his  want  of  consideration  of 
other  traffic.  He  is  the  most  persistent  moving 
obstruction  which  exists.  The  motor-car  driver, 
on  the  other  hand,  has  to  be  the  best  driver  on  the 
highway  if  he  is  to  drive  without  offense  to  the 
public  and  danger  to  them  and  himself,  for  he  has  to 
conduct  a  vehicle  which  is  more  valuable  than  any 
other  and  far  and  away  more  speedy  though  more 
handy,  and,  therefore,  whose  meeting  with  and 
overtaking  of  other  vehicles  is  many  times  more 
rapid.  In  addition  to  these,  he  has  to  consider 
other  dangers  of  the  road  to  which  other  vehicles 
are  not  so  liable  and  which  come  from  the  construc- 
tion of  its  surface. 

The  complete  motorman  should  have  a  working 
knowledge  of  the  different  materials  of  which 
roads  are  made,  of  their  comparative  tendency  to 
cause  skidding,  and  of  the  perils  which  arise  from 


324     Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

excessive  and  badly  laid  street-car  tracks.  He 
must  know  and  continually  practice  the  courtesies  of 
the  road  and  learn  its  manners  and  customs.  He 
must  be  observant  and  realize  that  children  hanging 
on  the  rear  of  wagons  are  liable  to  drop  off  suddenly 
and  run  across  his  path.  He  must  be  on  the  look-out 
for  pedestrians,  stupid,  drunk,  or  deaf,  for  wagons 
on  the  wrong  side  of  dangerous  corners,  and  to  be 
prepared  to  find  vehicles  in  charge  of  sleepy  drivers 
who  will  often  do  the  wrong  act  on  awakening.  It 
will,  therefore,  be  seen  that  the  motorman  to  be 
really  good  has  to  be  the  best  driver  on  the  road 
and  that  the  standard  demanded  must  necessarily 
be  high.  He  must  possess  exceptional  qualities  as 
compared  with  the  horse  driver.  The  question 
is,  therefore,  all  important — What  are  the  best 
methods  of  training  such  a  man  ? 

There  is  no  doubt  that  many  of  the  schools 
which  are  teaching  elementary  mechanics  to 
the  would-be  motorman  are  excellent  in  their 
way.  But  there  are  many  which  are  nothing 
but  frauds.  Reports  have  frequently  been  made 
to  the  State  where  a  man  has  complained  bitterly 
of  having  put  down  $25  or  $50  in  return  for  which 
nothing  but  most  elementary  instruction  has  been 
given  and  this  often  in  the  worst  possible  way. 
There  has  been  no  teaching  in  traffic  rules  or  on  the 
road,  or,  if  given,  so  little  as  to  be  of  no  use.  But  at 
other  places  pains  are  taken,  and,  by  diagrams  in 
the  class-room  and  practical  teaching  on  the  road 
much  has  been  taught.  There  are  also  nowadays 
hand-books  galore  which  teach  the  construction, 
repair,  the  common  faults  and  likely  failings  of  the 
gasoline  engine  from  A  to  Z.  The  mechanical  side 


The  Golden  Rule  of  Motoring       325 

may,  therefore,  be  said  to  have  been  amply  provided 
for. 

But  this  is  only  the  less  important,  though 
necessary,  part  of  the  training  of  the  modern 
motorman.  What  is  really  needed  is  that  some 
school  should  teach  manners  on  the  road  and 
the  habits  of  traffic, — in  short,  train  its  men  for  the 
road.  There  should  also  be  problems  of  difficult 
but  ordinary  situations  in  traffic  set  in  a  written 
examination,  the  correct  solution  of  which  should 
be  obligatory  before  the  motorman  could  be  said 
to  be  properly  trained.  It  is  not,  perhaps,  easy  to 
see  at  first  how  this  sort  of  instruction  can  be  given 
on  the  present  scale  of  fees,  but  the  schools  in 
the  future,  which  devote  a  large  part  of  their 
attention  to  teaching  the  rules  of  the  road  and 
its  customs  and  courtesies  will  assuredly  turn 
out  the  best  class  of  drivers,  who  will  be  in  the 
greatest  demand. 

To  begin  with,  the  habits  of  horse-drawn  vehicles 
should  be  studied.  It  is  a  liberal  education  to 
take  a  journey,  for  instance,  on  the  top  of  a  Fifth 
Avenue  motor  bus  and  watch  the  way  in  which 
the  driver  drives  his  unwieldly  vehicle  through  the 
streets  of  New  York.  Other  bus  drivers  also  are 
rapidly  becoming  his  equal,  and  let  it  be  acknowl- 
edged that  nothing  but  the  hard  school  of  practical, 
every-day  experience  in  New  York  City  streets, 
assisted  by  police  supervision  and  the  fear  of  dis- 
missal for  carelessness  or  accident,  could  produce 
such  able  drivers. 

Again,  the  expert  taxicab  driver  might  be 
taken  as  an  example  of  a  faster  class  of  motor 
traffic.  The  would-be  first-class  motorman  when 


326     Putnam's  Automobile  Handbook 

being  trained  would  thus  have  the  experience  of 
horse  vehicles  and  pedestrians,  and  have  noted 
carefully  what  usually  happens  and  have  tried  to 
understand  their  point  of  view.  This  is  one  of  the 
first  steps  which  should  be  taken  in  training  the 
driver  of  the  swift  mechanical  vehicle.  Then 
example  might  be  given  of  the  proper  way  to  drive 
cars  around  corners,  both  right-handed  and  left- 
handed,  and  the  best  manner  of  the  ascending  and 
surmounting  steep  gradients  or  negotiating  high 
bridges.  Driving  at  night  should  also  be  practiced, 
and  prospective  drivers  should  learn  to  distinguish 
the  faint  glow  on  the  road  ahead  which  designates 
the  presence  of  a  motorcycle  and  other  signs  denot- 
ing persons  or  vehicles.  Map  reading  should  also 
be  a  part  of  his  instruction. 

And  there  is  yet  one  other  thing  which  the 
motor-driving  school  should  inculcate,  though 
it  could  not  technically  teach  the  motorman — 
that  is,  good  manners  to  his  employer  and  his 
employer's  friends.  To  be  rough  and  rude  is  a 
disgrace  to  any  class,  and  it  is  the  mark  of  a  man 
who  is  either  not  certain  of  himself  or  is  afflicted 
with  an  innate  bad  temper.  It  is  not,  and  never 
can  be,  a  sign  of  superiority.  A  respectful  and 
civil  attitude  not  only  makes  the  path  of  life  easier, 
but  is  in  itself  a  strong  recommendation.  Little 
things  which  do  not  at  first  seem  to  matter,  and 
are  merely  more  in  the  nature  of  courtesy  than 
servile  attentions,  should  be  observed.  A  civil 
salute  when  the  owner  first  addresses  the  motor- 
man, the  readiness  to  help  in  any  little  matter, 
such  as  carrying  a  bag  to  the  station,  or  the  thought 
of  a  rug  to  cover  the  lap,  and  similar  little  courtesies, 


The  Golden  Rule  of  Motoring       327 

are  the  sign  of  the  man  who,  if  considerate  in  these 
little  matters,  is  likely  to  be  considerate  in  others 
more  important.  It  also  establishes  him  firmly  in 
the  estimation  of  his  employer. 

To  sum  up,  the  perfect  motorman,  though 
he  should  possess  as  much  knowledge  of  mechanics 
as  possible,  should,  above  all,  be  a  considerate  driver, 
well  versed  in  the  manners  and  courtesies  of  the 
road  and  the  habits  of  traffic.  And  in  addition, 
he  should  try  to  be  well  mannered,  as  more  and 
more  motor-car  owners  are  becoming  convinced  that, 
besides  knowledge,  "Manners  maketh  the  Motor- 


Index 


329 


INDEX 


Accelerate  while  clutch  is 
being  engaged,  168 

Accelerator,  lubrication  of,  41 

Accelerator  pedal,  20;  what  it 
does,  where  placed,  160 

Accessories,  electric,  cause 
trouble,  282 

Air  in  tires,  plenty  of,  before 
leaving  garage,  308 

Alcohol,  in  freeze-proof  solu- 
tion, how  much  to  use,  192 

Alignment,  why  wheels  are  not 
set  in  perfect,  101,  102,  103 

Ammeter,  20,  109;  needle 
erratic,  cause  of,  283 

Anti-freezing  solution,  164, 
165;  necessary  in  winter, 
191;  best  to  use,  193; 
home-made,  cheapest  and 
just  as  efficient,  193;  com- 
position of,  depends  on  tem- 
perature, 193;  sometimes 
wise  to  replace  with  hot 
water  to  start  engine,  194 

Armature,  increasing  speed  of, 
117 

Armature  winding,  trouble  in, 
277 

Asphalt,  dried,  how  to  remove 
from  car,  241 

Asphyxiation  from  gasoline 
fumes,  225;  how  to  avoid, 
226 

Automobile,  value  of,  what  it 
depends  on,  4;  schools,  7; 
half  knowledge  of,  an  ob- 
stacle, 8 ;  description  and  es- 


sentials of,  12;  how  to  pull 
out  when  stuck,  86;  steering 
compared  with  steering  of 
boats  of  different  types,  102; 
setting  of  wheels  compared 
with  bicycle,  105;  will  steer 
with  broken  tie  rod,  106;  how 
to  start  with  engine  running, 
1 66;  how  to  stop,  168;  how 
to  reverse,  169;  cleaning  of, 
175,  236;  may  be  kept  in 
commission  in  many  cold 
places  the  year  round,  191; 
any  modern  make,  if  kept 
in  good  condition  will  climb 
worst  hill,  229;  to  prepare 
for  a  tour,  244;  trouble 
hunting  must  be  systematic, 
272;  trouble,  best  way  to 
find,  273;  not  a  fad,  301 

Automobile  body,  how  to  care 
tor  gloss  of,  242 

Automobile  fires,  causes  of, 
214 

Auxiliary  air  valve,  adjust  for 
high  speeds,  309 

Axle,  rear,  description,  13;  for- 
ward, description  and  loca- 
tion, 14 

Axle  shaft,  rear,  wind  felt 
around,  to  keep  oil  away 
from  brake  lining,  96 


B 


Back-firing,  cause  of  fires,  214; 

how  to  prevent,  220 
Bands,  brake,  how   arranged, 

97 


331 


332 


Index 


Batteries,  two  should  be  car- 
ried, 157 

Battery,  1.5;  source  of  current, 
I o  ;  necessity  of  first  testing, 
109,  114;  ignition,  120;  be 
sure  it  is  sufficiently  charged 
before  leaving  garage,  157; 
must  be  filled  oftener  in 
hot  weather,  206;  packed 
around  with  waste,  some- 
times causes  fire,  217;  test 
before  touring,  248;  inspect, 
in  case  of  trouble,  276;  rules 
for  care  of,  312;  indications 
and  causes  of  a  discharged, 

313 

Battery  and  coil  ignition  sys- 
tem, 15 

Battery  to  magneto,  switch 
from,  309 

Battery  trouble,  123;  more 
difficult  to  keep  charged  in 
winter,  123;  instance  of 
starving  battery,  124,  125; 
must  not  be  overcharged, 
125;  less  efficiency  in  cold 
weather,  126;  now  furnishes 
all  current  used,  126;  sedi- 
ment in,  126;  can  be  charged 
overnight,  127;  former  bat- 
tery "don'ts,"  127;  average 
life  of  battery,  128 

Bearings,  crank,  17;  lubrica- 
tion of  wheel,  43;  definition, 
different  types,  149;  of  en- 
gine, form  and  construction, 
how  oiled,  150;  of  ignition 
system,  form  and  lubrica- 
tion, 152;  carburetor  and 
throttle,  152,  153;  spark- 
control,  starter,  153;  steer- 
ing-gear, transmission  pro- 
peller shaft,  154;  other,  155; 
need  additional  care  in 
summer,  208;  loose,  cause 
knocking,  258;  tight,  cause 
knocking,  259;  grit  in,  due  to 
loss  of  hub  cap,  270 

Belts  fan,  troubles,  how  to 
care  for,  200 


Bicycle,  setting  of  wheel  com- 
pared with  automobile,  105 

Boats  of  different  types,  steer- 
ing of,  compared  with  steer- 
ing of  automobile,  102 

Bolts,  dropped  from  cars,  268; 
absence  of,  cause  squeaks, 
269;  examination  of,  269; 
brake-linkage,  271;  dust- 
pan, 271;  must  know  loca- 
tion of,  271;  tighten,  once  a 
month,  271 

Bottle,  rubber  hot-water,  for 
heating  carburetor,  194 

Brake,  use  of  engine  as  a,  95, 
234,  247;  running,  when 
needed,  how  operated,  158; 
emergency,  its  use,  how 
operated,  159,  308 

Brake   bands,   how  arranged, 

97 

Brake  drums,  description  and 
location,  14,  15;  how  injured, 
98 ;  keep  free  from  oil,  247 

Brake-lever,  emergency,  20, 
159:  lubrication  of,  41 

Brake  lining,  can  be  ruined, 
95;  oil  on,  its  cause,  the  re- 
sults, how  to  prevent,  96; 
wears  thin,  98;  when  neces- 
sary to  replace,  98;  rivets 
of,  98;  how  to  save,  247 

Brake  linkage,  15,  97;  bolts, 
271 

Brake  mechanism,  oiling  of, 
important,  97 

Brake  pedal,  20 

Brake  rods,  worn,  cause 
clattering,  264 

Brakes,  affect  tires,  72;  badly 
or  unevenly  adjusted,  cause 
skidding,  80,  88;  more  im- 
portant than  the  engine, 
manufacturers  constantly 
improving,  93;  must  be 
continually  watched,  94; 
other  means  of  braking,  95; 
use  of,  on  hills,  95,  172,  173; 
oil  in  lining,  what  causes  it, 
how  to  prevent  it,  96,  97; 


Index 


333 


B  rakes —  Continued 
lubrication  necessary,  97; 
failure  of  lining,  98;  hand 
and  foot,  98,  99;  adjustment 
of  both,  for  best  effect,  99; 
inspect  both  sets  before 
touring,  246;  use  two  sets 
alternately,  247 

Brass,  remove  cor  osion  from, 
with  cleaning  compound, 
239;  how  to  keep  from 
corrosion,  239 

Breaker  points  cause  trouble, 
292 

Bulbs,  electric  light,  extra 
set,  3 1 

Bursting  of  radiator,  pipes,  and 
water-jacket  prevented  by 
proper  freeze-proof  solution, 
193 


Cam,  loose,  causes  knocking, 
259;  follower  guide  causes 
knocking,  259;  shafts  to 
adjust,  309 

Cams,  worm,  cause  knocking, 
259 

Carbon,  on  valves,  67;  secon- 
dary current  absorbed  by, 
119;  acts  as  a  condenser, 
119;  short  circuits  spark 
plug,  120;  in  engine  causes 
over-heating,  202 ;  remove, 
before  touring,  247;  causes 
knocking,  251;  reduces  size 
of  combustion  chamber,  252 ; 
bits  of,  in  unusual  places, 
cause  trouble,  272;  on  valve 
seats,  274 

Carbon  dioxide,  in  gasoline 
fumes,  224;  monoxide,  in 
gasoline  fumes,  224 

Carbonic  acid  gas,  in  gasoline 
fumes,  224 

Carburetor,  location,  15;  what 
it  does,  23;  float,  23;  ad- 
justment to  limit  gasoline 
supply,  47;  affected  by 


weather,  53;  varieties  of, 
55;  test  for,  56;  adjustment 
Q*i  56,  57;  poor  adjustment 
of,  68;  bearings,  152;  prim- 
ing, 1 66;  works  worst  in 
cold  weather,  185;  manu- 
facturers constantly  im- 
proving efficiency  of,  185, 
1 86;  desired  which  will 
vaporize  heavy  gasoline  in 
cold  weather,  186;  stove  and 
water-jacket  both  needed 
for  cold  weather,  186;  will 
work  better  if  hot  air  is  first 
introduced,  187;  "stove" 
put  out  by  many  manu- 
facturers, 187;  with  water- 
jacketed  mixing  chamber, 
187;  devices  for  heating,  194; 
hot  weather  treatment,  206; 
inspect  in  case  of  trouble, 
275;  how  to  adjust  a,  309; 
learn  construction  before 
attempting  to  adjust,  309 

Caster  effect  of  inclined 
knuckle  pins,  105 

Castor  oil  for  harsh-gripping 
clutch,  310 

Cautions,  miscellaneous  im- 
portant, 176 

Chains,  cross,  82;  non-skid, 
how  to  adjust,  81,  82;  often 
drop  links,  270 

Chain  tool,  convenience  of,  29 

Chamber,  combustion,  17 

Chamois  skin,  52,  241 

Charge,  of  gasoline  and  air, 
17;  in  combustion  chamber, 
how  fired  and  when,  22 

Chart,  Y.  M.  C.  A.,  general 
trouble,  279 

Chassis,  construction  of,  13; 
position  of,  13;  how  to  clean, 

239 

"  Chauffeur, "  real  meaning 
"stoker,"  320 

Chauffeurs,  faults  of,  6;  must 
now  have  technical  elec- 
trical knowledge,  282,  283, 
284;  show  generally  an  in- 


334 


Index 


Chauffeurs — Continued 

crease  in  neatness  and  clean- 
liness and  improvement  in 
manners,  321 

Choke,  or  priming  device,  162 

Circuit,  breaker,  16;  complete 
necessary,  108;  secondary, 
gap  in,  112;  secondary, 
heavy  insulation  absorbs 
current,  119 

Clattering  caused  by  worn 
brake  rods,  264 

Cleaning  car,  175,  236;  cleaner 
it  is  kept,  longer  it  will  run 
satisfactorily,  236;  oil  and 
grease  should  be  removed 
from  outside  of  engine,  237, 
238;  from  wire  terminals 
and  spark  plugs,  238;  from 
cylinders,  remove  corro- 
sion from  brass,  239;  keep 
iron  parts  from  rusting,  239; 
fan,  fan  belt,  pulleys,  and 
casings,  239;  chassis  and 
parts  under  car,  239;  how  to 
make  a  "creeper"  to  lie  on 
while  working  under  car, 
240;  cleaning  the  body  with 
hose  and  water,  240;  drying 
with  chamois  and  cloth,  241 ; 
how  to  remove  dried  mud 
and  asphalt,  241 ;  dp  not  use 
soap,  241;  use  running  water 
if  possible,  242 ;  preparations 
for  renewing  varnished  sur- 
face, 242;  cleaning  and 
treatment  of  the  top,  242; 
keep  car  covered  in  garage, 
242;  slip  covers,  243;  fumes 
from  stable  or  barnyard  will 
dull  varnish,  243;  barn  used 
for  garage  should  be  re- 
novated, 243 

Clearance  between  valve 
stems,  and  push  rods  causes 
trouble.,  290 

Click  caused  by  rear  driving 
shaft,  instance  of,  262 

Climbing  hills,  171 

Clogging  of  muffler,  145,  146 


Cloth,  use  of,  in  cleaning  car, 
241 

Clutch,  cone,  18;  multiple 
disc,  18;  location  of,  18; 
pedal,  20;  lever  lubrication 
of,  41;  affects  tires,  71; 
where  placed,  its  purpose, 
how  it  works,  158;  how  to 
use  with  accelerator  pedal, 
168;  use  in  hill-climbing, 
172;  engage  gradually,  177; 
expanding,  instance  con- 
nected with,  289;  rules  for 
care  of,  310 

Clutch    pedal,    where   placed, 

158 

Cold  weather,  starting,  in,  184 

Combustion,  67 

Combustion  chamber,  17; 
charge  in,  how  fired  and 
when,  22;  oil  in,  48,  49;  re- 
duced in  size  by  carbon,  252 

Commutators,  driver  must 
know  how  to  sandpaper, 
282;  and  to  undercut  the 
insulation  of,  283;  sparking 
at  the,  283 

Complications  on  car,  increase 
comfort,  but  add  to  worries, 
284 

Compression,  how  maintained, 
24;  absence  of,  53;  test  be- 
fore touring,  248;  too  high, 
causes  knocking,  251,  260; 
necessary  to  start  engine, 
273;  tests  in  case  of  trouble, 
273;  when  it  occurs,  274 

Compression  chamber,  in- 
stance of  stopping  knocking 
by  increasing  size,  252 

Compression  stroke,  17 

Condenser,  may  need  examina- 
tion, 121 

Cone  clutch,  18 

Congested  streets,  driving  in, 

i?3 

Connecting  rod,  17,  68;  bear- 
ing, causes  knock,  256,  258 

Connection,  loose,  results  of, 
283 


Index 


335 


Connector,  battery,  276 

Conveniences,  added,  have 
made  more  trouble,  280,  281 

Cooling,  principle  of,  15;  dif- 
ferent system,  15 

Corners,  how  to  turn,  170 

Cotter  pins,  supply  to  all  nuts 
before  touring,  248;  lost  in 
street,  268;  absence  of, 
causes  squeaks,  269 

Courtesy  in  motoring,  317; 
more  noticeable  in  the  West 
than  in  the  East,  318;  ab- 
sence of,  in  ill-bred  drivers, 
319;  speech  by  Hon.  Francis 
M.  Hugo,  general  require- 
ments and  desirable  quali- 
ties of  men  who  are  trusted 
to  run  automobiles  on  the 
public  roads,  319 

Covers  for  radiator,  195 

Crank,  17;  where  placed  and 
carried,  157;  missing,  in- 
stance of,  287 

Crank  bearings,  17 

Crank  case,  16;  water  in,  68; 
to  be  drained,  cleaned,  and 
refilled  before  touring,  245 

Crank-pin  bearings  cause 
knocking,  258 

Crank  shaft,  revolutions  in 
complete  cycle,  17;  bearing 
causes  knocking,  258;  bent, 
causes  knocking,  259 

Crank  the  engine,  how  to,  166 

Cranking  engine,  no  use  when 
sv/itch  is  off,  285;  five  things 
to  do  before,  308;  three 
things  to  do  after,  309 

Creeper,  to  lie  on  in  working 
under  car,  how  to  make,  240 

Crossings,  railway,  extra  care 
necessary,  180 

Crown  of  the  road  causes 
slipping,  90 

Current,  electric,  course  of, 
108;  break  in,  order  of  tests 
to  find,  109;  more  used  in 
starting  in  winter,  126 

Cut-out,     object,     144;     now 


prohibited  and  unnecessary, 
145;  sometimes  causes  fires 
when  opened  in  garage,  216 

Cut-out,  reverse  current,  283 

Cuts  in  tires,  70 

Cycle  of  the  engine,  number  of 
strokes,  17 

Cylinders,  16;  importance  of 
testing,  24;  size  of,  in  rela- 
tion to  air  taken  in,  47; 
proper  power  from  each, 
61;  worn  oval,  67;  water  in, 
68;  outside  kept  free  from 
oil  and  grease,  238;  raised 
by  fiber  gasket,  252;  loose 
on  base,  causes  knock,  256; 
worn  causes  knocking,  259; 
loose  due  to  lost  washers  or 
pins,  270;  test  for  com- 
pression, 274 


Dashboard,  wires  and  pipes, 
dials  and  gauges  and  switches 
on,  284 

Death  from  gasoline  fumes, 
224;  how  to  avoid,  226 

Descending  hills,  use  of  engine 
as  a  brake,  172 

Differential,  location  and  pur- 
pose of,  13;  housing,  13; 
rules  for  care  of,  311 

Disc  clutch,  multiple,  18 

Distance  between  cars,  neces- 
sary to  keep  enough,  87 

Distributor,  16;  dirty,  causes 
knocking,  260;  examine  in 
case  of  trouble,  276 

Doors  of  garage  left  open  when 
engine  is  running,  227 

Drivers  must  look  out  for  pe- 
destrians, 296 

Drive  shaft,  19 

Driving,  156;  in  congested 
streets,  173 

Drums,  brake,  description  and 
location,  14,  15;  how  injured, 
98;  keep  free  from  oil,  247 


336 


Index 


Dry  cells  may  be  carried  while 

touring,  248 
Dust  pan,  parts  drop  into,  269 


Electric,  bulbs,  extra  set 
needed  while  touring,  249; 
lights  and  accessories  cause 
trouble,  282 

Electrical,  equipment,  108; 
trouble,  tests  for,  109;  sys- 
tems, knowledge  of,  neces- 
sary to  operate  and  care  for 
a  modern  car,  282,  283,  284 

Electricity,  static,  causes  fires, 
217 

Electrolite,  replenish  with 
water,  312 

Electrolitic  action  set  up  by 
salt  in  freeze-proof  solution, 
192 

Emergencies,  be  prepared  for, 
with  proper  tools,  27 

Emergency  brake,  lever,  20, 
159;  to  be  set,  308 

Engine,  three  things  necessary 
.  to  start,  10,  273;  three  things 
necessary  to  keep  running, 
10,  2i ;  location  of,  15; 
description  of,  16;  cycle, 
number  of  strokes  in,  17; 
power  in,  how  secured,  22; 
use  of,  as  a  brake,  95,  172, 
234;  gap  in  secondary  cir- 
cuit helps  to  start,  112; 
skips  at  low  ^ speeds,  116; 
missing  at  high  and  low 
speeds,  how  to  overcome, 
116,  117;  bearings,  150; 
how  to  start,  165;  to  prevent 
stalling,  167;  speed  of,  learn 
to  judge  by  sound,  167; 
stalls  on  a  hill,  what  to  do 
if,  172;  missing  due  to 
cold  weather,  184;  higher 
temperature  to  the  boiling 
point  of  water,  best  for 
efficiency,  189,  197;  effi- 
ciency of,  improved  by 


covering  radiator  when 
running  against  the  wind, 
190;  two  things  necessary 
to  operate  in  winter,  191; 
freeze-proof  solution,  what 
to  use,  191;  priming  in  cold 
weather,  194;  to  start,  some- 
times necessary  to  substitute 
hot  water  for  anti-freezing 
solution,  194;  runs  better  in 
winter  when  fan  is  dis- 
connected, 195;  radiator 
cover  necessary  in  cold 
weather,  195;  overheating 
in  summer  causes  trouble, 
197;  knocking  at  high  speed, 
198;  overheats  when  driven 
at  high  speed  with  spark 
retarded,  198;  overheating 
caused  by  sediment  in  radia- 
tor, 199;  overheating  caused 
by  careless  stretching  of 
hose,  201;  overheating 
rarely  caused  by  pump,  201 ; 
keep  free  from  carbon  to 
prevent  overheating,  202 ; 
will  climb  worst  hills,  if 
kept  in  good  condition, 
229;  remove  oil  and  grease 
from  outside,  237,  238;  re- 
move carbon  before  touring, 
247;  knocks  from  too  high 
compression  caused  by  car- 
bon, 251;  knocking  stopped 
by  raising  cylinder,  252; 
loose  on  frame,  causes  knock- 
ing, 259;  loose,  due  to  lost 
washers  or  pins,  270;  oil  and 
water  necessary  to  keep 
running,  273;  conditions 
existing  in  case  of  trouble, 
273;  stalled  on  crossing, 
instance  of,  287;  five  things 
to  do  before  cranking,  308 

Engine  oil,  for  multiple  disc 
clutch,  311 

Equipment,  which  may  be 
purchased  separately,  24; 
electrical,  108;  extra,  to  be 
carried  on  car,  157 


Index 


337 


Exhaust,  steam  from,  in  cold 
weather,  50 

Exhaust  pipe,  15;  may  set  fire 
to  car,  215,  216;  fumes  from, 
cause  death,  224;  how  to 

Erevent,  226;  composition  of 
.imes,  226 

Exhaust  stroke,  17 

Exhaust  valves,  sticking,  cause 
knock,  257;  carbon  in,  274 

Expansion  of  charge,  17 

Expense  of  upkeep,  73 

Explosion,  none,  from  gaso- 
line, 222 

Extinguisher,  fire,  necessary, 
218;  dry  and  liquid,  223; 
carry  while  touring,  249 


Pan,  disconnect  in  cold 
weather,  195;  formed  by 
spokes  of  fly-wheel,  200; 
collects  dust,  239;  causes 
knocking,  260 

Fan  belts,  troubles  of,  how 
to  care  for,  200;  collects 
dust,  239;  coupling,  causes 
knocking,  259 

Fan    blades    cause    knocking, 

259 

Feed  systems,  gravity,  pres- 
sure, and  vacuum,  163 

Felt,  use  of,  to  prevent  oil  on 
brake  linings,  96 

Fence  rail  as  jack,  30 

File,  interrupter  point,  28 

Fire,  causes  of,  214,  215,  216, 
217,  218,  221;  extinguisher 
necessary,  218;  don't  run 
away  from,  stay  and  fight 
hard,  220;  to  put  out,  use 
sand,  salt,  or  patent  ex- 
tinguisher, 222;  carry  extin- 
guisher while  touring,  249 

First-aid  kit,  32 

Five  things  to  do  before  crank- 
ing engine,  308 

Float  in  carburetor,  23 

Fly     wheel,     17;     spokes    of, 


forming  fan,  200;  loose, 
causes  knocking,  259;  out 
of  balance,  causes  knocking, 
259 

Force,  how  produced  in  a 
gasoline  engine,  17 

Force-feed  lubrication,  16 

Four  things  to  do  before 
leaving  garage,  308 

Freeze-proof  solution,  for  en- 
gine, 191;  composition  of, 
depends  on  temperature, 
192;  best  to  use,  193;  home- 
made, cheapest  and  jus£  as 
efficient,  193;  sometimes 
wise  to  replace,  with  hot 
water  to  start  engine,  194 

Fresh-air  problem,  solution  of, 
301 

Fuel  supply  systems,  16;  tank, 
16 

Fuller's  earth  for  slipping 
clutch,  310 

Fumes  of  gasoline  cause 
death,  224;  chemical  changes, 
composition  of,  224,  226; 
heavier  than  air,  22$;  how 
to  avoid,  226;  intoxication 
from,  227,  228 

Fumes  from  stable  or  barn- 
yard affect  polished  auto 
bodies,  243 

"  Furnace, ' '  hot-air  for  warm- 
ing air  before  it  enters  car- 
buretor, 187 

Fuse,  109;  substitute  for,  in 
horn, 113 


Gap  in  secondary  circuit,  112 

Garage  doors,  leave  open  while 
engine  is  running,  227 

Garage,  what  to  do  before 
leaving,  157,  308;  opening 
near  floor  for  escape  of 
gasoline  fumes,  227 

Gaskets,  intake  manifold,  53; 
dented  or  jammed,  64;  under 
cylinders  increase  size  of 


338 


Index 


Gaskets — Continued 

compression    chamber,    and 
stop  knocking,  253,  254 

Gas  knock,  257 

Gasoline,  and  air,  charge  of, 
17;  under  what  conditions 
it  explodes,  21 ;  proportion  of 
vapor  to  air  to  produce  good 
combustion,  21;  causes  of 
excessive  use  of,  46;  ad- 
iustment  of  carburetor  to 
limit  supply  of,  47;  needs 
oxygen  for  complete  con- 
sumption, 47;  water  in,  52; 
strainer  for,  52;  different 
qualities  of,  55;  cost  of,  58; 
economy  of,  61,  62,  63;  loss 
through  leaking,  65;  excess 
of,  indicated  by  black  smoke, 
68 ;  affects  tires,  72;  ex- 
amine supply  before  leaving 
garage,  157;  feed  systems, 
163;  teakettle  and  dishrag 
method  of  vaporizing,  184, 
1 88,  194;  volatility  of,  de- 
creasing, 185;  present  supply 
has  higher  heat-producing 
quality  when  vaporized,  but 
heavier,  harder  to  vaporize 
in  cold  weather,  186;  heat 
necessary  to  change  from 
liquid  to  vapor,  186,  187; 
stove  makes  vaporization 
easier,  187;  when  vaporized, 
sometimes  condenses  again 
in  cold  engine,  187;  stove 
and  water  jacket  both  needed 
in  cold  weather ,_  188;  vapor- 
izes properly  in  a  warm 
garage,  some  condenses  in 
cold  air,  188;  unnecessary 
amount  used  by  retarded 
spark,  198;  less  required  in 
hot  weather  than  in  cold, 
206;  in  drip-pan,  cause  of 
fire,  215;  burns,  does  not 
explode  under  normal  condi- 
tions, 221;  will  not  explode 
unless  vaporized,  222;  fire, 
how  to  put  out,  222;  fumes, 


of,  cause  death,  224;  chemi- 
cal changes,  composition  of 
fumes  of,  224-226;  fumes 
of,  heavier  than  air,  225; 
how  to  avoid  fumes  of,  226; 
intoxication  from  fumes  of, 
227,  228;  loosens  up  grease 
and  oil  in  cleaning  car,  238; 
carry  extra  supply  when 
touring,  246;  necessary  to 
start  engine,  273;  inspect, 
in  case  of  trouble,  275;  used 
for  slipping  clutch,  310 

Gasoline  tank,  where  placed, 
how  gasoline  supply  is  main- 
tained, 162;  examine  in  case 
of  trouble,  275 

Gas-pipe,  carbon  in,  272 

Gear,  low-speed,  as  a  brake,  95 ; 
high-speed,  run  on  as  much 
as  possible,  168;  always  turn 
corners  on  second  speed,  171 

Gear  casings,  collect  dust,  239; 
refill  before  touring,  245 

Gear  shifting,  137;  necessary 
for  proper  adjustment  of 
load  to  speed,  138;  noiseless 
shifting  desirable,  138;  how 
best  to  shift  from  first  to 
second,  and  second  to  third, 
139;  how  best  to  shift  from 
third  to  second,  and  second 
to  first,  139,  140;  when  to  go 
back  to  second,  to  first,  140; 
don't  shift  too  soon,  140; 
in  hill  climbing,  140;  how 
to  make  a  silent  shift  on  a 
hill,  141;  what  makes  gears 
grind,  141;  how  to  avoid  a 
noisy  shift  to  first  on  start- 
ing, 141;  on  hills,  229;  on 
an  up  grade,  231 ;  starting  up 
hill,  231;  which  gear  is  best 
to  use,  232;  avoid  strain- 
ing car  by  careful  choice 
of  gears,  232,  233;  gears  to 
use  descending  hills,  233, 
234;  no  speeding  on  hills, 
perfect  control  of  car  neces- 
sary, 234 


Index 


339 


Gear-shifting  lever,  where 
placed,  how  operated,  159; 
how  to  move,  when  stuck  in 
neutral,  168;  place  in  neu- 
tral, 308 

Gear-shifting  pedals,  20 
Gears,  purpose  of,  18,  131; 
trouble  comes  in  the  shift- 
ing gears,  not  in  the  trans- 
mission, 130;  grinding  or 
clashing  detrimental,  131, 
141;  diagram  and  explana- 
tion of  three-speed  gears, 
131 ;  to  start,  133;  to  increase 
speed,  133,  134;  to  decrease 
speed,  135;  to  reverse,  136; 
care  necessary,  136;  use  of, 
in  hill-climbing,  171;  ex- 
amine before  touring,  245 
Generator,  16;  must  not  over- 
charge battery,  125;  adjust- 
able for  summer  and  winter, 
127 

Glycerin  in  freeze-proof  solu- 
tion, 192 

Gravity  fuel  supply,  16,  163 
Grease,   61;  affects  tires,   72; 
heavier    quality    needed    in 
summer,    207;    carry    extra 
supply  when  touring,  246 
Grease  cups,  turn  down,  before 
leaving  garage,  157,  311,  312 
Greasing  car,  rules  for,  311,312 
Grinding  and  clashing  of  gears, 

131,  Hi 

Ground  connections,  no 
Ground  wire,  loose,  1 1*4 
Guides,    valve    push-rod,    en- 
closed in  housings,  44;  lubri- 
cation of,  44 


H 

Headlight  trouble,  1 14 

Heat,  much,  necessary  for  va- 
porization of  gasoline,  186, 
189 

High-speed  gear,  run  on,  as 
much  as  possible,  168 


High-tension  magneto  system, 

Hill-climbing,  how  to  shift 
gears,  140,  141;  use  of 
throttle,  s^ark,  and  gears, 
171;  what  to  do  if  engine 
stalls,  172;  use  of  clutch, 
172;  blowing  horn  when,  297 

Hills,  descending,  use  of  engine 
as  a  brake,  172;  use  of 
brakes  on,  173;  the  steepest 
can  be  made  by  any  modern 
car  which  is  in  good  condi- 
tion, 229 

Horn  blowing,  292;  how  it  has 
arisen,  295;  much  of  it  un- 
necessary, 296;  blowing  not 
necessary  after  others  have 
seen  you,  297;  while  passing 
and  turning,  297;  on  hills, 
297;  when  others  are  pass- 
ing, 298 

Horn  trouble,  113,  284 

Hose,  careless  stretching  of, 
causes  overheating,  201 ;  de- 
fective, causes  knocking,  260 

Hose  and  water,  how  to  use  in 
cleaning  car,  240 

Hot  weather,  over-inflation  of 
tire,  instance  of,  203;  ex- 
pands air  in  tires,  giving 
greater  pressure,  204 

Housings,  differential,  13;  for 
valve  push-rod  guides,  44 

Hub  of  rear  wheel  needs  in- 
spection when  keyed  to 
shaft,  43 

Hub  caps,  loss  of,  allows  grit  to 
get  into  bearings,  270 

Hugo,  Hon.  Francis  M.,  speech 
by, 319 

Hydro-carbon  in  burning  gaso- 
line, 224 

Hydrometer,  109;  rules  for 
readings,  313 


Ignition,  switch,  20;  magneto, 
116;  battery,  120;  prevented 


340 


Index 


Ignition — Continued 

by  short-circuiting  due  to 
carbon,  120;  switch,  where 
placed,  its  use,  how  operated 
162;  use  of,  when  braking 
with  engine,  on  hills,  173; 
wrongly  timed,  causes 
knocking,  260;  inspect  in 
case  of  trouble,  276 

Ignition  system,  kinds,  15; 
work  of,  24;  bearings,  152; 
requires  many  changes  of 
spark  lever,  198;  test  before 
touring,  248;  rules  for  locat- 
ing trouble  in,  314 

Inflation,  tire,  under,  60; 
increased  by  hot  weather, 
204;  lower  pressure  needed 
in  hot  weather,  205;  proper 
degree  of,  211,  212 

Inlet  valve,  17;  trouble  in,  274 

Inspect^  don't  expect,  285 

Instruction  book,  manufac- 
turer's, importance  of  fully 
mastering,  i,  269 

Instructions,  importance  of 
following,  8,  9 

Insulation,  heavy,  on  secondary 
wires  absorbs  current,  119 

Insurance  premium  lower  when 
extinguisher  is  carried,  218 

Intake  manifold,  16;  gaskets, 
53;  leaky,  63;  loose,  64 

Intake  valve,  52 

Interrupter  point  file,  28 

Interrupter  points,  adjusting, 
to  overcome  engine  missing 
at  high  or  low  speed,  116; 
cleaning  of,  121;  carbon  in, 
272;  inspect  in  case  of 
trouble,  276 

Iron,  angle,  used  in  chassis,  13 

Iron  parts,  how  to  keep  from 
rusting,  239 


Jack,    importance   of   handle, 

30;  use  of  fence- rail  as  a,  30 

Jerking,  how  to  overcome,  167 


Jet,  low  speed,  clogged,  291 
Joints,  universal,  19,  40 

K 

Kerosene,  can  be  used  for 
cleaning  out  the  sump,  37; 
loosens  up  grease  and  oil, 
238;  for  cleaning  car,  241; 
for  multiple  disc  clutch,  311 

Kit,  first-aid,  32 

Knocking,  of  engine,  198; 
prevented  by  removal  of 
carbon,  247;  too  high  com- 
pression, 251;  caused  by 
cam-shaft  gear,  sticking  ex- 
haust valves,  2£7;  stopped 
by  increasing  size  of  com- 
pression chamber,  252;  many 
causes  for,  255;  some  need 
immediate  attention,  some 
do  not,  256;  loose  connecting 
rod  bearing,  loose  cylinder, 
lack  of  lubrication,  spark 
advanced  too  far,  short 
circuit,  256;  not  caused  by 
lean  mixture,  or  over-ad- 
vanced spark-,  258;  caused 
by  mechanical  looseness  due 
to  improper  adjustment  or 
wear,  258;  by  faulty  igni- 
tion, 259;  by  faulty  car- 
buretion,  260;  by  faulty 
lubrication,  260;  by  over- 
heating of  engine,  260;  by 
faulty  compression,  260 

Knocks  in  the  chassis,  262 

Knuckle-pins,  how  kept  in 
place  and  relieved  of  weight, 
104;  inclined  fore  and  aft, 

Knuckles,  steering,  14,  40 
L 

Lamps,  109,  no 

Leaks  of  oil  and  gasoline, 
sources  of,  65 

Lever,  spark  timing,  19;  emer- 
gency brake,  20;  throttle, 


Index 


Lever  —  Continued 

manipulation  of  spark  lever 

19,  20,  161;  clutch,  lubrica- 

when  using,    198;    coupling 

tion    of,    41;   gear   shifting, 

causes  knocking,  259;  trou- 

159; emergency  brake,  159; 

ble,  instance  of,  291;    rules 

spark  control,  161,  198 

for  timing,  310 

Lighting  switch,  20,  109 

Manifold,    intake,    16;    leaky, 

Lighting     system,     rules     for 

63;  loose,  64 

locating  troubles  in,  314 

"Mechanician"    French    term 

Lights  dim,  what  makes  the, 

for  driver  of  a  car,  321 

283 

Mechanics,  careless,  269 

Linings,  brake,  can  be  ruined, 

Misfiring,  63 

95;  oil  on,   96;   wear  thin, 

Mixing  chamber,  23 

98;   when  necessary  to   re- 

Mixture, 17;  rich  and  lean,  21; 

place,  98 

proper,    56;    thin,    63,    66; 

Linkage,  brake,  15,  97 

weak,  64;  anti-freezing,  164, 

Links,    loose    cross,    how    to 

165;  warming  device,  neces- 

fasten, 271 

sary  in  winter,  186;  too  rich 

Linseed  oil,  use  of,  in  cleaning 

or  too  lean  calls  attention 

car,  241 

to    other    parts    which    are 

Lubrication,       systems,       16; 

causing  knocking,  258 

why  needed,  33;  most  com- 

Motor, see  Engine 

mon    system,    34;    troubles, 

Motor,      starting,     see      Self- 

35;      necessity   of   frequent 

starter 

inspection,    36;    needed    in 

Motorist,      absent-mindedness 

many     minor     places,     39; 

in  —  bad  habit,  285,  286,  287 

steering  knuckles,   40;   uni- 

Motoring, future  of,  depends 

versal  joint,  40;  clutch  and 

upon  behavior  of  motorists 

brake  levers,  self-starter  and 

toward  the  public,  320 

accelerator,  41  ;  spring  shack- 

"Motorman"   best    term    for 

les,  42;  wheel  bearings,  43; 

driver    of    an     automobile, 

spring   leaves,    valve   push- 

321 

rod  guides,  overhead  valves, 

Mud,   dried,   how   to   remove 

44;    of    brakes    important, 

from  car,  241 

97;  system  how  made  and 

Muffler,  purpose  of,  15;  often 

supplied,   its   care,    164;   in 

neglected  or  misused,    143; 

cold    weather,    195;    proper 

its    uses,    and    advantages, 

oil  necessary,    195;   heavier 

143,   144;  original  object  of 

grease   needed   in    summer, 

the    cut-out,     144;    cut-out 

207;  inspect  before  touring, 

now     prohibited     and     un- 

246; time  table,  312 

necessary,  145;  needs  careful 

Lubricants,  poor,  cause  knock- 

attention, 145;  clogging  pre- 

ing, 260 

vents  escape  of  gases,  and 

brings  loss  of  power,    145, 

146;  instance  of  bad  effect 

M 

of  clogging,  146;  usually  no 

provision  made  for  inspec- 

Magnetic field,  distortion  of, 

tion,    147;    kerosene    clogs, 

117 

147;      special      information 

Magneto,     high-tension,     sys- 

sometimes necessary,  148 

tems,      15;     ignition,      116; 

Multiple  disc  clutch,  18 

342 


Index 


N 

Neatsfoot  oil  for  harsh  gripping 
clutch,  310,  311,  312 

Needle  valve,  52,  63,  276; 
adjust  at  low  speed,  309 

Nitrogen  in  gasoline  fumes, 
224 

Noise,  in  the  chassis,  262 ;  from 
torque  rod,  from  worn  brake 
rods,  from  worn  spring- 
shackle  bolts,  264;  from 
worn  steering  knuckle-pins, 
265;  from  tools  and  acces- 
sories, 265;  from  broken 
gear  teeth  and  other  parts, 
265 

Non-skid,  tires,  81,  84,  85; 
chains,  81,  82;  devices, 
which  to  use  under  various 
conditions,  85;  chains  often 
drop  links,  270 

Nuts,  tighten  before  touring, 
248;  absence  of,  cause 
squeaks,  269;  examination 
of,  269;  must  know  location 
of,  271 


0 


Oil,  effect  of  absence  of,  in 
lubrication,  36;  things  which 
wear  it  out  and  make 
necessary  to  replace,  36,  37; 
how  often  to  drain  out,  37; 
things  which  affect  its  lubri- 
cating value,  37;  in  the 
combustion  chamber,  48 ; 
how  to  prevent,  49 ;  waste  of, 
through  leakage,  65;  affects 
tires,  72,  165;  on  the  brake 
lining,  cause,  results,  how  to 
prevent,  96;  examine  supply 
of,  before  leaving  garage, 
157,  308;  proper,  necessary 
for  cold  weather,  195;  take 
car  maker's  advice,  196; 
on  fan  belts,  200;  remove 
from  exterior  of  engine,  238 ; 


carry  reserve  supply  when 
touring,  246;  lack  of,  causes 
knocking,  260;  excess  of, 
causes  knocking,  260;  ne- 
cessary to  keep  engine  run- 
ning, 273 

Oil  feed  sight,  20 

Oil  level,  how  to  correct  when 
too  high,  49 

Oil  pump,  34,  35 

Oil  the  car,  when  to,  311,  312 

Oiled  roads  dangerous,  90; 
necessary  to  take  at  low 
speed,  92;  during  summer 
season,  207 

Outlet  valves,  22 

Overheating,  caused  by  sedi- 
ment in  radiator,  199;  rarely 
caused  by  pump,  201 ;  caused 
by  careless  stretching  of  hose, 
201;  caused  by  carbon  in 
engine,  202 

Over-inflation  of  tire,  in  hot 
weather,  instance  of,  203; 
makes  riding  uncomfortable, 

211 

Owner,  originality,  initiative, 
and  ingenuity  of,  important, 
9;  should  learn  how  to  do 
many  things  himself,  202 


Pail,  folding,  29 

Parts  dropped  in  streets,  268, 
269;  lost,  puncture  tires,  270 

Passengers,  drive  for  the  com- 
fort of,  169 

Passing  others,  blowing  horn 
-while,  297,  298 

Pedals,  gear-shifting,  20;  start- 
ing, 20,  158,  288;  brake,  20, 
158;  clutch,  20,  158;  acceler- 
ator, 20, 160, 1 68; reverse,  95 

Pedestrians  have  right  of  way 
everywhere,  296 

"Pep,  "56 

Petcocks,  274 

Pin,  tie  rod,  270 


Index 


343 


Pipe,  exhaust,  15;  exhaust, 
may  set  fire  to  car,  215,  216; 
attach  to  exhaust  in  garage, 
to  lead  fumes  to  outer  air, 
227 

Pipe  lines,  clogged,  cause 
knocking,  260 

Pipes,    leaky    supply,    65;    to 

•    prevent  bursting  of,  193 

Piston  head,  hole  punched  in, 
by  valve  head,  274 

Piston  rings,  16;  grooving  and 
drilling  to  release  surplus 
oil,  49;  leaky,  53,  54;  to 
prevent  working  around,  67; 
loose,  cause  knocking,  259; 
carbon  in,  272 

Pistons,  16;  too  small,  cause 
knocking,  259 

Pliers,  carry  while  touring,  249 

Plug,  spark,  17;  cracks  or  po- 
rosity in,  119;  carry  extra 
set  while  touring,  249;  to 
test  in  case  of  trouble,  277 

Policemen,  don't  run  away 
from,  10 

Power,  stroke,  17;  how  con- 
nected to  wheels,  18;  how 
secured  in  engine,  22;  neces- 
sity of  pressure  to  get,  22; 
proper,  from  each  cylinder, 
61 

Pre-igniticn,  caused  by  in- 
crease of  pressure  in  combus- 
tion chamber,  252;  causes 
knocking,  260 

Premium  on  fire  insurance 
lower  when  extinguishers 
carried,  218 

Pressure,  necessity  of,  for 
power,  22 ;  on  tires  increases 
in  hot  weather,  204;  on  tires 
test  for  increase  in,  in  hot 
weather,  210;  proper  for 
tires,  211,  212;  in  combus- 
tion chamber,  251 

Pressure  fuel  system,  16,  163 

Priming,  how  done,  163;  in 
cold  weather,  194 

Propeller-shaft  bearings,  154 


Pump,  oil,  34,  35;  overheating 

rarely  caused  by,  200;  parts 

of,  cause  knocking,  260 
Pump  type  of  cooling  system, 

15 
Puncture  caused  by  lost  parts, 

270 
Push-rod    adjustment    causes 

knocking,  259 
Push -rods,   clearance  between 

valve    stems    and,     causes 

trouble,  290 


Radiator,  location  of,  15;  ex- 
amine, before  leaving  garage, 
157;  sediment  in,  164,  199; 
to  remedy  discharge  of  steam 
from,  165;  adjustable  device 
to  regulate  admittance  of 
air,  189;  covers,  189,  195; 
cover  partly  or  wholly  in 
cold  weather,  188,  189;  if 
covered,  improved  efficiency 
of  engine,  190;  bursting  of, 
to  prevent,  193;  water  boil- 
ing in,  198;  clogged,  causes 
knocking,  260 
Radius  rods,  13 
Railway  crossings,  extra  care 

necessary,  180 
Rattles,  causes  of,  269 
Reverse  the  car,  how  to,  169 
Reverse  pedal,   use  of,   as   a 

brake,  95 
Reversing,  shifting  of  gears  in, 

136 

Rings,  piston,  16,  49,  53,  54,  67 
Rivets  of  brake  lining,  98 
Road  rules,  of  Y.  M.  C.  A., 
156;  local,  must  be  obeyed, 

Roads,  oiled,  dangerous,  90; 
necessary  to  take  at  low 
speed,  92 ;  generally  sprinkled 
or  oiled  during  summer  sea- 
son, 207 

Roads,  signs  along,  importance 
of,  90;  parts  found  along,  269 


344 


Index 


Roadway,  crown  of  the,  causes 

slipping,  87,  90 
Rod,   radius,    13;    torque,    13, 

264;  tie,  14,  101,  106,  107; 

connecting,  17,  68 
Rotary  motion,  how  obtained, 

17 
Rubber  hose  decomposed   by 

glycerin  in  freeze-proof  solu- 
tion, 192 
Rules,  importance  of  following, 

8,  9,  10;  miscellaneous,  308 
Running  brake,  158 


S 


Safety  devices,  best  necessary, 
89 

Salt  in  freeze-proof  solution, 
192 

Schools,  automobile,  manu- 
facturers' for  purchasers,  3; 
7;  danger  of  being  taught 
at  inefficient  or  fraudulent 
institutions,  324 

Screws,  absence  of,  causes 
squeaks,  269 

Secondary  current  absorbed 
by  carbon,  119 

Sediment,  in  battery  causing 
short-circuit,  126;  in  radiator 
164,  199 

Self-starter,  pedal,  20;  lubrica- 
tion of,  41;  types  of,  128; 
bearings,  153 

Service  stations,  7 

Shaft,  crank,  17;  drive,  19; 
rear,  in  driving  causes  click, 
262 

Shifting  gears,  133;  on  hills, 
229;  on  an  up  grade,  231; 
starting  uphill,  231;  choice 
of  gears,  232;  avoid  straining 
car,  232,  233;  descending 
hills,  233,  234 

Short  circuiting,  causes  fires, 
217;  causes  knocking,  259 

Shut-off  valve,  275 

Sight  oil  feed,  20 


Signs  along  the  road,  impor- 
tance of,  90 

Skidding,  76;  effects  of,  on  car, 
77;  in  winter,  77;  turning 
corners,  78;  rear  wheel,  how 
to  stop,  79;  street-car  tracks, 
80;  uneven  brakes,  86,  88; 
unequal  distribution  of 
weight,  81;  best  prevented 
by  care,  82,  83;  due  mostly 
to  excessive  speed,  86; 
caused  by  crown  of  road, 
87; 'by  turning  corners  at 
high  speed,  by  sharp  turn  of 
steering-wheel,  87;  stopped 
by  turning  steering-wheel,  88 

Skipping  sometimes  overcome 
by  enriching  the  mixture, 
190 

Smoke,  its  sources,  46;  reme- 
dies, 47,  48,  49;  how  to  tell 
from  what  it  comes,  50; 
black,  68 

Soap,  not  to  be  used  on 
polished  surfaces  of  car,  241 

Spark,  17;  why  advanced  and 
retarded  and  how,  23;  in- 
tensity of,  increased  by  gap 
in  secondary  circuit,  112; 
has  more  kick,  116;  very 

£  weak,  perhaps  caused  by 
condenser,  121;  use  of,  in 
hill-climbing,  171;  retarded, 
uses  unnecessary  gasoline, 
and  overheats  engine^  198; 
greatly  retarded  indirectly 
causes  fires,  216;  retard  to 
prevent  knocking  on  hills, 
231;  over  advanced  does  not 
cause  knocking,  258;  too  late 
causes  knocking,  259;  at 
right  time,  necessary  to 
start  engine,  273 ;  test  for  in 
case  of  trouble,  276;  fully 
retarded,  308;  advance  two- 
thirds,  309 

Spark-control  bearings,  153 

Spark  lever,  19,  161,  198 

Spark  plugs,  17;  widening 
gaps  of,  to  prevent  engine 


Index 


345 


•park  plugs — ConlinueA 

missing,  117;  insulating  sur- 
face inside  cylinder,  118; 
cracks  in,  insulation,  119; 
testing  of,  120;  short-cir- 
cuited by  carbon,  120;  keep 
free  from  oil  and  grease, 
238;  carry  when  touring, 
249;  points  of,  cause  knock- 
ing, 259,  260;  oarbon  be- 
tween points  of,  272;  how  to 
test  in  case  of  trouble,  277 

Sparking  at  commutator,  283 

Sparks  from  commutators 
cause  fires,  221 

Speed,  how  to  shift  gears  in 
increasing  or  decreasing,  133, 
134.  I35;  of  engine,  learn  to 
judge  by  sound,  167;  running 
at  extreme,  cause  of  fires, 

2*5 

Speeds,  number  of,  in  gears,  18 

Spindles,  14 

Splash  lubrication,  16;  pan,  34 

Sponge,  use  of,  in  cleaning  car, 
240 

Spray  nozzle,  275 

Spray  valve,  63 

Spring  leaves,  lubrication  of,  44 

Spring  repair  attachments,  248 

Spring-shackle  bolts  sometimes 
make  noise,  264 

Spring  shackles,  lubrication  of, 
42 

Springs,  examine  before  tour- 
ing, 248 

Squeaks,  causes  of,  269 

Stalling  engine,  how  caused, 
167;  what  to  do,  on  a  hill, 
172 

Starter,  switch,  trouble  in, 
280;  a  great  convenience, 
but  a  source  of  trouble,  281, 
282;  pedal  sticking,  instance 
of,  288;  makes  automobile 
available  to  women,  302 

Starting,  motor,  16;  pedal,  20, 
158;  systems,  types,  128; 
crank,  157;  engine,  three 
things  necessary,  273 


Steam,  from  exhaust  in  cold 
weather,  50;  to  remedy  dis- 
charge from  radiator,  165 

Steering,  of  automobile  com- 
pared with  steering  of  differ- 
ent type  of  boats,  102;  with 
broken  tie  rod,  106,  107 

Steering  gear,  out  of  true,  71; 
bearings,  154 

Steering  knuckles,  14;  lubrica- 
tion in,  40 

Steering-shaft,  worm  on,  19 

Steering  tie  rod,  101 

Steering  wheel,  19,  162 

Stop,  how  to,  168 

Storage  battery,  15 

Stove,  supplied  by  many  manu- 
facturers to  heat  air  before 
it  enters  carburetor,  187; 
may  be  dispensed  with  in 
hot  weather,  206 

Strain,  how  taken  off  knuckle 
pins,  104 

Streets,  how  to  turn  in  narrow, 
169;  driving  in  congested, 

173 

Strokes,  suction,  compression, 
power,  and  exhaust,  17 

Suburbs  of  any  city,  the  place 
for  automobiling,  303 

Suction  stroke  of  engine,    17 

Sump,  34 

Supply  pipes,  leaky,  65 

Switch,  lighting,  20,  109; 
ignition,  20,  162;  self- 
starter,  trouble  in,  280; 
thrown  to  battery  position, 
308 

System,  importance  of,  in  lo- 
cating trouble,  9;  a  process 
of  elimination,  273 

Systems,  cooling,  kinds,  15; 
ignition,  kinds,  15;  lubri- 
cation, kinds,  16;  fuel  supply, 
kinds,  16,  163 


Talc  French, for  slipping  clutch, 
310 


346 


Index 


Tank,  fuel  supply,  16;  gasoline, 
1 62;  water,  164 

Tape,  tire,  carry,  while  touring, 
249 

Temperature,  high,  to  the 
boiling  point  of  water,  but 
for  efficiency  of  engine,  189 

Terminals,  electric,  testing  of, 
109 

Tests  for  electrical  troubles, 
examples  of,  109 

Thermo-syphon  type  of  cool- 
ing system,  15 

Things  to  do,  four  before 
leaving  garage,  308;  five, 
before  cranking  engine,  308; 
three  after  cranking,  309 

Throttle,  purpose,  23 ;  use  of, 
in  hill-climbing,  171;  open, 
in  starting,  308;  close,  till 
engine  idles,  309 

Throttle  bearings,  153 

Throttle  lever,  its  use,  where 
placed,  how  operated,  19, 
20,  161 

Tie  rod,  must  not  be  bent,  14, 
101 ;  broken,  106,  107 

Tie  rod  pin,  270 

Timing,  correct,  24 

Timing  gears,  to  adjust,  309 

Timing  gear  teeth  cause 
knocking,  259 

Timing,  ignition,  wrong,  causes 
knocking,  260 

Tire  pressure,  tests  of  increase 
due  to  running  in  hot 
weather,  210 

Tire  repair  materials,  carry, 
while  touring,  249 

Tire-valve  tool,  30 

Tires,  purpose  and  location, 
19;  abuse  of,  59,  60;  de- 
terioration of,  69;  cuts  in, 
70;  affected  by  steering 
gear,  71;  by  clutch,  71; 
by  brakes,  72;  by  oil,  grease, 
gasoline,  and  wet  weather, 
72;  general  cost  of,  73;  stor- 
ing, in  winter,  74;  porosity  of, 
75;  keep  clean,  75;  non-skid, 


81,  84,  85,  86;  examine, 
before  leaving  garage,  157; 
how  to  care  for,  165;  ex- 
pand in  hot  weather,  204; 
pressure  test  of,  after  hot 
weather  running,  205;  under- 
inflation  and  over-inflation, 
205;  inflated  too  hard  make 
riding  uncomfortable,  211; 
weakened  from  any  cause 
blow-out  quicker,  211; 
proper  pressure  for,  211, 
212;  extra,  carry  on  car, 
249;  puncture  caused  by 
lost  parts,  270 

Tool  for  tire  valves,  30 

Tools,  furnished  with  car,  26; 
for  emergencies,  27;  too 
many  better  than  too  few, 
27;  additional,  desirable,  28; 
to  be  carried  on  car,  157 

Tops,  how  to  clean  and  care 
for,  242 

Torque  rod,  13 ;  causes  knocks, 
264 

Touring,  what  to  do  before, 
244;  refill  gear  case,  245; 
examine  gears,  245;  drain, 
clean,  and  refill  crank  case, 
245;  attend  to  lubrication, 
246;  carry  extra  oil,  grease 
and  gasoline  on  car,  246; 
examine  brakes,  246;  keep 
brake  drums  free  from  oil, 
247;  have  carbon  removed, 
247;  tighten  nuts  and  in- 
spect all  parts,  248;  test 
compression,  grind  in  valves, 
inspect  ignition  system,  re- 
charge battery,  dry  cells 
should  be  carried,  examine 
springs,  248;  things  which 
should  be  carried,  249 

Tow  rope,  31;  fastened  to  post 
and  rear  wheel,  86;  carry 
while  touring,  249 

Traffic,  driving  in,  173;  rules 
give  pedestrian  right  of  way, 
296;  rules  should  be  taught 
by  auto  schools,  325 


Index 


347 


Transmission,    130;    rules    for 

care  of,  311 
Transmission    gear    bearings, 

Trolley  crossings,  extra  care 
necessary,  182 

Trouble,  hunting  must  be 
systematic,  272 ;  a  process  of 
elimination,  273;  the  first 
thing  to  do,  273;  indications 
when  engine  turns  over 
easily  or  hard,  273;  com- 
pression tests,  273,  274; 
exhaust  valves,  274;  inlet 
valve,  274;  inspect  gasoline, 
275;  inspect  carburetor,  275; 
inspect  ignition  system,  276; 
277,  314;  chart,  Y.  M.  C.  A., 
279;  in  the  self-starter 
switch,  280;  caused  by  added 
conveniences,  280,  281;  ne- 
cessary to  almost  dismantle 
complex  types  of  engines, 
281;  made  by  starter,  281, 
282;  made  by  electric  lights 
and  accessories,  282;  by 
complicated  electric  systems 
and  wiring,  282,  283,  284 

Tubes,  how  to  keep,  73;  carry 
extra  while  touring,  249 

Turn  buckle,  14 

Turn,  in  narrow  streets,  how 
to,  169;  corners,  how  to,  170 

Turning,  blowing  horn  when, 
297 


U 


Universal  joints,  19,  40 
Upholstery,  protect  with  slip 
covers,  243 


Vacuum  fuel  supply,  16,  164 
Valve  head,  punches  hole  in 

piston  head,  274 
Valve    push-rod    guides     en- 
closed in  housings,  44 ;  lubri- 
cation of,  /| /| 


Valve-stems,  clearance  be- 
tween push  rods  and,  causes 
trouble,  290 

Valve,  needle,  52,  63,  276, 
309;  spray,  63;  sticking 
causes  knocking,  259;  aux- 
iliary air,  275,  309;  shut  off, 

275 

Valves  inlet,  17,  22;  outlet, 
22;  overhead,  lubrication  of, 
44;  leaky,  54,  66;  carbonized, 
67,  272,  274;  exhaust,  257; 
inlet,  274 

Vaporization  of  gasoline  ab- 
sorbs much  heat,  187;  best 
in  cold  weather  when  stove 
and  water  jacket  are  both 
used,  188 

Velocipede,  setting  of  wheel 
compared  with  automobile, 

i°5 

Vibration,  effects  of,  65 
Voltmeter  ^109 

W 

Washers,  supply  to  all  nuts 
before  touring,  248;  ab- 
sence of,  causes  squeaks,  269; 
lock,  270 

Washing  automobile,  what  to 
use,  how  to  do  it,  175 

Waste,  carry  on  car,  30;  packed 
around  battery  has  caused 
fires,  217 

Water,  in  cylinder  and  crank 
case,  68;  where  placed,  its 
care,  164;  boiling  in  radiator, 
198;  evaporates  from  bat- 
tery quicker  in  hot  weather, 
206;  of  no  use  in  fighting 
gasoline  fires,  222;  running, 
should  be  used  in  cleaning 
car  whenever  possible,  242; 
needed,  273;  take  on  before 
leaving  garage,  308 

Water  jacket,  on  mixing  cham- 
ber of  gasoline,  187;  to 
prevent  bursting  of,  193 

Wet  weather  affects  tires,  72 


348 


Index 


Wheel,  fly,  17;  steering,  19,  162 
Wheels,  how  front  are  made  to 

Women  as  drivers,  300;  East- 
ern and  Western  compared, 

converge   and   undergather, 
14;  how  power  is  connected 

302  ;  as  apt  as  men  at  master- 
ing details,  303;  at  Y.  M. 

to,    18;    why    not    parallel, 

C.  A.  Auto  School,  303;  all 

101,  102,  103;  set  to  under- 

types, pupils,  304;  take  cars 

gather,  104;  setting  of,  com- 

apart  and    assemble    them, 

pared  with  bicycle,  105 

305;    road    instruction    for, 

Wheel  bearings,  lubrication  of, 

306;  have  the  main  qualities 

43 

needed     for     drivers,     307; 

Wind     sometimes     cools     the 

taking  up  the  auto  seriously, 

engine     too     much     when 

307 

traveling  against,  190 

Wood,  block  of,  to  put  under 

Wire,  spool  of,  31;  extra  wire 

jack,  30 

for  additional  device,    in; 

Worm  on  steering  shaft,  19 

carry  while  touring,  249;  to 

Wrist  pin,  out  of  line  or  loose, 

fasten  cross  link,  271 

causes  knocking,  259 

Wire  gauze,  52 

Wire  terminals,  keep  free  from 

oil  and  grease,  238 

Wires  to  plugs,  inspect,  in  case 

of  trouble,  277 

Wiring  diagram,  knowledge  of, 

Yokes,  14 

important,  115 

Y.  M.  C.  A.  Automobile  School, 

Wobbling,  tendency    to   over- 

road rules,  56;  general  trou- 

come    by     converging      of 

ble   chart,   279;    women   as 

wheels,  103 

pupils,  303 

L 


THE  LIBRARY 
UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 

Santa  Barbara 


THIS  BOOK  IS  DUE  ON  THE  LAST  DATE 
STAMPED  BELOW. 


MAR  29 1989 

MAR  2  3  1989 


